Iron Age

The Iron Age describes the time period between 1200 and 600 B.C., where the widespread adoption of iron weapons and tools replaced the use of bronze. This transition was disrupted by the collapse of numerous civilisations during the first half of this period, often referred to as the Ancient Dark Age. As Mediterranean societies regained stability between 850 and 650 B.C., a transformed geopolitical landscape emerged, with power shifting westward from the Fertile Crescent to the Aegean.

Greece

Following the collapse of the Bronze Age civilization of Mycenaeans (c.1100 B.C.) and the destruction of palaces and cities, the Hellenic peninsula and islands were ravaged by famine, leading to depopulation. Amongst the political instability, raiding of coastal settlements from the sea became commonplace. Education and writing ceased, and vital trade links were lost, while towns and villages were abandoned. Greece became isolated and backward for three centuries.

For a century prior to the collapse, Arcadian and Achaean peoples had already settled in the central Peloponnese; occupying Mycenae, they used the coast as a base for raiding Crete, Anatolia, and the Levant. Ionians occupied Attica and Euboea, while the Boeotians settled in central Greece. The Thracians seized the north coast of the Aegean. Aeolians spread throughout the islands of the Aegean, notably Lesbos and Chios. Far to the north, the Illyrians occupied the east coast of the Adriatic. The greatest of these people were the Dorians, who were a backward warlike people who had first settled in Epirus. Between 1100-1000 B.C., the Dorians spread outwards to the south, displacing peoples in the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Megara, and the Argolid. The most powerful Dorian tribe would settle in Lacedaemon and Laconia, where they would later become the Spartans. From these places, they built ships and raided Crete, Cos, Rhodes, and Cyprus, destroying as they went and settling the lands with their own numbers. The many tribes, each occupying a small valley, plain, or coastal part of the Greek peninsula, would dispute one another over territory ceaselessly for the next eight hundred years.

The isolation of Greece during these dark centuries saw a return to subsistence farming, with small, scattered communities relying on local resources to survive. The loss of writing meant that oral tradition became the primary means of preserving knowledge, leading to the development of myths and legends that would later define Greek identity. Warfare remained endemic, with constant skirmishes and raids shaping the political landscape. Despite these hardships, cultural continuity persisted, with older religious practices and artistic traditions carried forward in rudimentary forms. By the late 9th century B.C., contact with the eastern Mediterranean was slowly reestablished, leading to renewed trade and the eventual reintroduction of writing, marking the first steps toward the rise of the classical Greek world.

Aristocracy & Colonisation

By 900 B.C., monarchies across Greece had largely given way to aristocracies, as hereditary kings lost power or were reduced to ceremonial figures, with Sparta being the principal exception. The aristocrats, wielding iron weapons and amassing land, solidified their control at the expense of the lower farming classes, leading to renewed economic hardship and food shortages. After 800 B.C., the pressure of overpopulation and social unrest prompted a wave of colonisation, initially encouraged by the ruling elites as a means of diffusing internal discontent. Greek city-states established settlements across the Mediterranean, spreading Hellenic culture far beyond the mainland. Major colonies took root along the Anatolian coast, in Libya, and along the Nile at Naucratis (founded in 640 B.C.). Greek traders and settlers also reached the coasts of Gaul and Iberia, as well as the northern shores of the Black Sea. These outposts reestablished Greece as a central force in Mediterranean trade, linking the region’s economies once more, while at home a vibrant culture emerged, inspired by myths and legends transmitted through oral tradition by bards like Homer (c.750-800 B.C.).

The expansion of trade brought an influx of luxury goods, including oils, wine, ivories, gold, and silver, which in turn spurred advancements in metallurgy, pottery, and other crafts. This technological and artistic growth enabled the Greeks to rival the Phoenicians, whose own trade networks were dominant in the Mediterranean. As commerce flourished, a more educated and cultivated population emerged, driven by an interest in philosophy, literature, and the arts. The increased demand for labour also led to the widespread use of slaves, while the adoption of coinage, first introduced from Lydia, transformed economic practices. Individual city-states soon began minting their own coins, spurring competition and economic expansion.

In the cultural sphere, lyric poetry gained prominence, reflecting a growing appreciation for personal expression and artistic refinement. Greek art, once dominated by geometric patterns, shifted towards an oriental, or animal style, influenced by Eastern motifs and techniques. The early foundations of philosophy emerged with the Milesian School, where thinkers like Thales, Anaximenes, and Anaximander pioneered new ideas in mathematics and logic, laying the groundwork for rational inquiry that would define Greek intellectual tradition in the centuries to come.

The Early Peloponnese

By 800 B.C., Sparta had firmly established its dominance over the central Peloponnesian peninsula and extended its reach by colonizing the fertile lands of Messenia. In its expansion, Sparta waged war against Tegea, the leading city of the Arcadians, a people still fragmented and largely backward compared to the more developed Greek city-states. The Arcadians maintained a religious unity centered around the ancient rites conducted on Mt. Lycaeum, but this did little to unify them politically. Meanwhile, Corinth had emerged as a significant commercial hub, exerting influence over its smaller neighbor Megara until 720 B.C.. Argos, despite claiming hegemony over Greece as the successor of Mycenae, remained a relatively weak power, unable to assert control over its rivals.

In the First Messenian War (736-716 B.C.), Sparta, under the leadership of King Theopompus, launched a campaign to conquer Messenia. Following their victory, the Spartans seized the fertile plains and divided the land among themselves, forcing the native Messenians into servitude as helots, agricultural serfs bound to their Spartan masters. Alongside the Spartiates (full Spartan citizens) and the helots, there existed a third class known as the perioeci, free Laconians who lived in surrounding settlements but lacked full citizenship rights. Despite its growing military dominance, Sparta still maintained a vibrant cultural and intellectual life, particularly excelling in choral poetry, which was esteemed across Greece.

Under King Pheidon of Argos (c.680 B.C.), Argos briefly rose to power, defeating a coalition of Sparta and Tegea at the Battle of Hysiae in 669 B.C.. Pheidon further expanded Argive influence by supporting a rebellion in Aegina, defeating Epidaurus and its ally Athens in the process. His rule marked a significant moment in Greek economic history, as he introduced coinage to Greece, establishing a mint at Aegina. However, after his death, the monarchy’s power was curtailed, and Argos declined as a major force in Greek affairs.

The Second Messenian War saw renewed rebellion from the helots, led by the formidable Aristomenes, ruler of Arcandia, who waged a prolonged resistance against Spartan rule. Retreating to Mt. Eira, Aristomenes and his followers resisted for years before being ultimately subdued. The costly struggle convinced the Spartans that internal unrest posed an existential threat, prompting them to implement the so-called Eunomia, a rigorous reorganization of Spartan society into an even more militarized state, ensuring that future revolts could be suppressed swiftly and decisively.

Rise of Tyranny

By 650 B.C., the dominance of the aristocracies came under increasing strain as landless traders and artisans sought political representation. Unable to ignore the growing demands for change, the ruling elites saw their authority challenged by the rise of tyrants—leaders who, often with the backing of the wealthy, seized power to maintain order and prevent further unrest. In many cases, ambitious individuals exploited the instability to overthrow existing rulers and install themselves as absolute leaders. While these tyrants often came to power through force, they generally found favor with the populace by funding festivals, public works, and infrastructure projects, securing popular support while sidelining the traditional aristocracy.

Despite their often autocratic rule, tyrants inadvertently weakened the nobility’s grip on power. The rigid class and racial distinctions that had defined Greek society began to erode, and many city-states started to transition toward more democratic forms of government. The rule of tyrants paved the way for broader political participation, with reforms that, over time, would allow for the rise of citizen assemblies and representative governance in certain states. Some of the most notable tyrants of this period included Theagenes of Megara (640 B.C.), Thrasybulus of Miletus (620 B.C.), and Cleisthenes of Sicyon (600 B.C.), each of whom played a crucial role in reshaping the political landscape of their respective cities.

Athens

The nobles in Athens gradually curtailed the power of the monarchy, stripping the king of his military authority by transferring it to a polemarch and later assigning his civil responsibilities to an archon. By 683 B.C., the hereditary kingship had been completely abolished and replaced with an annual office, ensuring that no single ruler could maintain long-term control. Governance came to be dominated by a council of nobles known as the Areopagus, which became the supreme authority in the state. Though Athens technically maintained an ecclesia, or assembly of all freemen, it had either fallen into disuse or had been rendered politically powerless.

In 632 B.C., Cylon, a nobleman and relative of the tyrant Theagenes of Megara, attempted to seize control of Athens and establish a tyranny. His coup failed, and many of his followers, after surrendering under promises of safety, were betrayed and slaughtered by Megacles of the Alcmaeonid clan, an act that stained the Alcmaeonid family with religious and political infamy for generations. Seeking to impose order and reduce the cycle of private vengeance, Drako introduced Athens' first written legal code in 621 B.C.. While this system marked an important shift from oral law and blood feuds to a formal judicial structure, its severity made it deeply unpopular among the citizens. The laws were so uncompromisingly harsh that they gave rise to the term "draconian", still used to describe excessively severe legal measures. Despite their cruelty, Drako’s laws laid the groundwork for the later reforms that would shape Athenian democracy.

Phrygia & Lydia

The Phrygians, along with the Mysians, originally occupied a minor vassal state of the Hittites, situated along the Sakarya River in central Anatolia. Their capital, Gordium, was established by King Gordius around 1250 B.C.. According to legend, his son, Midas, was cursed with the ability to turn everything he touched into gold. The Phrygians participated in the Trojan War on the side of Troy, and their connection to the city was cemented when King Priam married the Phrygian princess Hecuba. Following the collapse of the Hittite Empire around 1175 B.C., the Phrygians secured their independence, expanding steadily over the next centuries.

Acting as a barrier between Greece and the East, the kingdom reached its zenith in the 8th century B.C., at which point it dominated most of central and western Anatolia. The Phrygians developed their own writing system, engaged in trade with the Greeks, and were known for their Polished Ware pottery, which became a signature of their culture. Their chief deities included Cybele, the Great Mother who rode a chariot drawn by lions, and Attis, the god who died by castration but was reborn; his eunuch priests, known as Galli, maintained his cult, which would persist long after the kingdom’s fall.

Phrygia ultimately met its end when it was overrun by the Cimmerians, a nomadic people from the north with cultural ties to the Scythians. These invaders first struck the Urartian kingdom in 714 B.C., but after suffering a defeat at the hands of Sargon II of Assyria in 705, they redirected their attacks westward. By 696-695 B.C., Phrygia had fallen completely to the Cimmerian onslaught, bringing its era of power to a close.

Lydia, another former Hittite vassal, achieved its independence in 1192 B.C.. Geographically positioned between Phrygia and the Aegean, Lydia became a crucial bridge between the eastern and western Mediterranean, excelling in commerce and craftsmanship. The Lydians were renowned for their skill as merchants, their expertise in horsemanship, and their innovation in coinage, which replaced the older system of bartering with precious metals. Their contributions extended into the arts, particularly in music and dance, and their cultural legacy includes Aesop, the famed storyteller. They worshipped Santas and Bacchus, gods associated with revelry and fertility. Their capital was Sardis, a city that would remain a major center of trade and administration for centuries.

Lydia was ruled by 22 successive generations of the Heraclid Dynasty, culminating in the reign of Candaules, who was assassinated in 687 B.C.. His killer and former confidant, Gyges, took the throne and founded the Myrmnadae Dynasty. Seeking to secure Lydia’s position, Gyges forged an alliance with the Assyrians, crushed the Cimmerians in 685 B.C., and expanded Lydian territory. However, his support for Psamtik, the Egyptian ruler who expelled the Assyrians from Egypt, provoked a fresh Cimmerian invasion. Gyges fell in battle in 652 B.C., and Sardis was razed soon afterward.

His son, Ardys, inherited both the throne and the ongoing war against the Cimmerians, who had now occupied eastern Lydia and the former lands of Phrygia. Over the next 33 years, the conflict raged on. The tide finally turned in the 620s B.C., when the Assyrians inflicted a decisive defeat on the Cimmerians, allowing Ardys to annihilate them in 619 B.C.. After this, the Cimmerians vanished from history. Between 619 and his death in 603 B.C., Ardys continued Lydia’s expansion, occupying Phrygia and pressing forward with the conquest of Greek coastal cities, a campaign first undertaken by Gyges.

Rome

The early Italian peoples, known as the Terramare, migrated into the Italian Peninsula from the Rhone and upper Danube valleys, bringing with them agricultural techniques and settlement patterns that shaped the region’s early development. As they expanded, they encountered the maritime cultures of the Aegean world, which influenced their way of life. Among these early Italian tribes were the Samnites, Sabines, and Latins, each of whom would play a critical role in the region’s future. A more advanced group, the Umbrians and Oscans, arrived later from the middle Danube basin, introducing ironworking to the peninsula, which would revolutionize warfare, agriculture, and craftsmanship.

Etruscans

The first clear evidence of Etruscan culture emerges around 900 B.C., marking the beginning of one of Italy’s most influential civilizations. Deeply influenced by Greek culture, the Etruscan civilization reached its height around 750 B.C., during the early foundational period of Rome. Their dominance extended across Etruria, the Po Valley, and Campania, though they were never unified under a single ruler. Instead, their power was distributed among a network of independent city-states, governed by prominent aristocratic families who held authority in their respective regions.

Among their many contributions, the Etruscans developed a writing system derived from the Greek alphabet, mastered ironworking, and established a political structure that later influenced Roman governance. Their legacy can still be seen in the enduring municipal character of Italian history—just as modern Italian peasants often identify more with their local city than with the broader nation, so too did the Etruscans and later Romans structure their society around city-states and local governance.

As time passed, Etruscan power waned, and much of their civilization faded, leaving behind little evidence that could withstand the waves of dramatic violence and upheaval that would engulf the Italian Peninsula for the next two thousand years. However, their influence endured, forming the cultural and political foundation upon which Rome would rise.

Founding of Rome

Destined to dominate the ancient Mediterranean world, Rome showed little indication of future greatness in its earliest days. Though the Italian Peninsula had been inhabited since prehistoric times, the specific site where Rome would rise was uninhabited before the 1st millennium B.C.. Even after its first settlement, the city remained nothing more than a small hamlet, precariously situated at a ford on the Tiber River. According to tradition, Romulus, the legendary son of a princess of Alba Longa, was its founder. The rulers of Alba Longa were, in turn, said to be descended from Aeneas, a fugitive of the Trojan War.

Throughout the 8th century B.C., small hilltop communities on the Palatine, Esquiline, Quirinal, and Capitoline hills gradually coalesced into a single city, Rome, with a shared meeting place in the low-lying Forum. These early settlers belonged to diverse ethnic backgrounds, primarily Latin, but also Sabine, Etruscan, and pre-Italic peoples. Rome's initial significance was likely not economic but military, serving as a Latin outpost positioned against the expanding Etruscans to the north.

The city’s first king, Romulus (753-715 B.C.), established a monarchy that, following his reign, became elective rather than hereditary. The king's power was constrained by the Senate, an advisory council of 100 elders (known as patres), and the comitia curiata, an assembly of clans (curiae) that formally granted the newly elected king his authority. Roman society was divided into two classes: patricians, who alone could serve in the Senate, and plebeians, who lacked direct political power. The patricians were likely the wealthiest landowners, who, by organizing themselves into curiae, elevated themselves above other citizens and consolidated their control over governance.

Numa Pompilius (715-673 B.C.), a Sabine, succeeded Romulus and shaped Rome’s religious and political institutions. He is credited with establishing the Roman calendar, the Vestal Virgins, and the cults of Mars, Jupiter, and Romulus, as well as creating the office of Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Rome. His successor, Tullius Hostilius (673-641 B.C.), pursued military expansion, defeating Alba Longa and reducing it to a vassal state. Under Ancus Marcius (641-616 B.C.), Rome continued its campaigns against the Latins, forcibly resettling defeated peoples in newly conquered lands surrounding the Aventine Hill, further solidifying its control over central Italy.

Egypt

Following the collapse of Dynasty XX, the rising power of the high priests of Amon stripped authority from the descendants of Ramses II, marking the beginning of Dynasty XXI amid the broader collapse of Egypt’s imperial influence. The priest-king Hrihor (1080-1074 B.C.) established his capital at Thebes, where he struggled to assert control over the nobles led by Smedes, who ruled from the Delta. This power struggle marked the start of the Third Intermediate Period, a time of decline and political fragmentation that paralleled the collapse of other great civilizations in the Near East.

Egypt descended into further disarray until the Libyan chief Sheshonk launched a decisive campaign in 945 B.C., seizing control and founding Dynasty XXII. His rule brought a century of relative stability, though Egypt remained weakened and divided. Establishing his capital at Bubastis, Sheshonk reasserted Egyptian authority and even campaigned into the Levant, briefly restoring Egypt’s influence abroad. However, after the reign of Osorkon II (837 B.C.), the kingdom fractured once more. The priestly families of Amon established a separate Nubian kingdom based in Napata, creating Dynasty XXIII. Egypt fell into a prolonged state of anarchy and civil war, lasting until 718 B.C., when the Nubian ruler Kashta marched north, crushing the resistance of multiple native Egyptian kings and asserting his dominance over Upper Egypt.

By 712 B.C., Kashta’s successor, Shabaka, completed the Nubian conquest of Egypt, establishing Dynasty XXV. The Kushite pharaohs sought to restore Egypt’s former glory, undertaking vast construction and restoration projects at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal. However, Egypt’s influence had already diminished significantly, and an even greater threat loomed in the Assyrian Empire to the east. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon struck Egypt in a massive invasion between 671-663 B.C., defeating Pharaoh Taharqa, capturing Memphis, and pushing south as far as Thebes. Taharqa perished during the campaign, while his successor Tantamani retreated to Nubia. The sack of Thebes and Memphis in 664 by the Assyrians marked one of the most devastating blows to Egyptian power in its long history.

In 663 B.C., Tantamani attempted a final reconquest of Lower Egypt, launching a large-scale invasion. However, the campaign faltered, forcing him to withdraw permanently to Nubia, where the Kushite dynasty continued to rule independently. In the power vacuum left behind, Psammeticus of Sais (663-609 B.C.), a governor originally appointed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, emerged as Egypt’s new leader. In 652, Psammeticus successfully threw off Assyrian rule, unifying the country and establishing Dynasty XXVI, ushering in what became known as the Saitic Revival, a last flourishing of Egyptian culture and military power before the coming of the Persians.

Phoenicia

Following the collapse of societies across the eastern Mediterranean, the Phoenician cities emerged as centers of trade, seafaring, and colonization. Rather than forming a unified state, Phoenicia consisted of a loose network of powerful city-states, each ruled independently yet bound together by common commercial interests. For over a millennium, the Phoenicians controlled one of the most expansive maritime trade networks in antiquity, dominating commerce across the Mediterranean world. The great cities of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos flourished, continuing to thrive even after the decline of Egyptian influence along the Levantine coast following 1225 B.C.. However, not all Phoenician settlements survived; Ugarit was destroyed in 1200 B.C. by raiders from the sea, and Beirut fell to the Assyrians around 1100 B.C..

King Abibaal of Tyre (969-936 B.C.) established the Kingdom of Tyre, transforming it into the dominant Phoenician power. His son, Hiram I (936-918 B.C.), consolidated Tyre's supremacy, founding what became known as the Hegemony of Tyre. His rule saw the subjugation of Utica, a Phoenician colony that had attempted to rebel. Renowned for his skilled craftsmen and naval expertise, King Hiram famously allied with King Solomon of Israel, providing Phoenician shipbuilders and sailors to construct a fleet for Red Sea trade expeditions. After his reign, he was succeeded by Beleazarus (920-918 B.C.), followed by his grandson Abstartus (918-909 B.C.).

The reign of Abstartus ended abruptly when he was assassinated by the first of four brothers, sons of his nurse, who seized power and ruled in succession from 909-887 B.C.. These rulers—Astartus, Deleastartus, Astarymus, and Phelles—destabilized the kingdom, leading to a period of internal conflict. Stability was restored under Ittobaal of Tyre (887-856 B.C.), a former priest of Baal, who established a new royal dynasty that ruled Phoenicia for over a century. However, Tyre's influence began to wane, and under pressure from the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire, the city was forced to pay heavy tributes to maintain its independence. In an effort to strengthen alliances against the Assyrians, Ittobaal’s daughter, Jezebel, married King Ahab of Israel, bringing Baal worship to the Hebrew kingdom. Meanwhile, her brother Balbazer (846-841 B.C.) continued Tyre’s struggle, submitting to Assyrian overlordship. He was followed by Mattan I (840-832 B.C.), who similarly governed under Assyrian dominance.

The last significant ruler of Tyre, Pygmalion (820-774 B.C.), shifted Phoenician trade networks away from the politically unstable Levant and Mesopotamia, redirecting commerce toward Cyprus, Greece, and Sardinia. His reign marked a turning point in Phoenician expansion, as overseas colonies became increasingly self-sufficient. His sister, Dido, fled Tyre in 925 B.C. to escape his autocratic rule, eventually founding the powerful city of Carthage in 814 B.C., which would later eclipse Tyre in wealth and influence. Following Pygmalion’s reign, Tyre and other Phoenician cities fell into a period of disunity and political disorder, with no clear rulers until Ittobaal II (750-739 B.C.), who briefly reestablished stability.

Assyrian Dominance

From the time of Pygmalion, the Assyrian Empire extracted tribute from Phoenician cities without fully subjecting them. This arrangement intensified after 738 B.C., when the cities were forced to pay an especially heavy levy to Tiglath-Pileser III. Though they retained nominal autonomy, Hiram II (739-730 B.C.) and Mattan II (730-729 B.C.) presided over a period of increasing Assyrian influence, as the hinterland of Phoenicia was gradually brought under direct Assyrian control.

During this time, Elulaios of Tyre (729-694 B.C.) sought to restore Phoenician dominance, successfully reconquering Cyprus after it had been seized by Sargon II. However, his efforts were ultimately in vain. When Sennacherib launched his military campaigns against the region, Elulaios was forced to flee to Cyprus, abandoning the mainland to Assyrian rule. From that point forward, Phoenicia and Cyprus fell completely under Assyrian dominion, with their independence effectively lost. Esarhaddon further cemented this control by destroying Sidon in 675 B.C., ending its prominence as a Phoenician power. Tyre, though spared from destruction, survived only in name, forced to pay heavy tribute to Ashurbanipal.

Following the collapse of Assyria in 612 B.C., the Phoenician city-states briefly regained their independence, emerging from centuries of foreign domination to reassert control over their trade networks and coastal settlements.

Israel & Judah

In the 11th century B.C., the ten tribes of Israel lived in Palestine among the Canaanites, existing as distinct but politically fragmented communities. Though they maintained their Israelite identity, they lacked any formal unity or centralized rule. Meanwhile, three other tribes—Simeon, Levi, and Judah—resided in the southernmost regions of Palestine, separate from the northern tribes.

During this time, Jabin, the King of Canaan, exerted control over the Israelite tribes, imposing a period of harsh oppression. In 1107 B.C., six of these tribes responded to the call of the prophetess Deborah, rallying against the Canaanites and securing a decisive victory in the Valley of Jezreel. Leadership during this period was held by Judges, tribal champions who emerged in times of crisis to lead the people to military and religious renewal. However, none of these figures established a lasting dynasty. Among the most notable Judges, Gideon was followed by his seventy sons, who ruled jointly for a time. Ehud famously assassinated Eglon, the King of Moab, while Jephthah, a Gileadite, led the Israelites to victory against the Ammonites.

Internal conflict also plagued the Israelites. Around 1170 B.C., a civil war nearly annihilated the tribe of Benjamin, demonstrating the deep divisions that weakened the Israelite confederation. Meanwhile, the Philistines, a formidable sea-faring people, became an increasing threat to the Israelites along the coastal plain. The legendary figure Samson of Dan, active in the 1140s B.C., embodied the resistance against Philistine domination. His struggles marked the beginning of the long-standing conflict between Israel and the Philistines, a struggle that would ultimately force the tribe of Dan to migrate northward, seeking new lands far from the Philistine strongholds.

First Kings

The increasing pressure of Philistine domination led the Israelites to appoint their first king, Saul (1028-1013 B.C.), following his spectacular victory at Jabesh in Gilead. Saul achieved military success, notably defeating the Philistines at Michmash, but his reign ended in disaster when he suffered defeat at the Battle of Gilboa. Facing certain capture, Saul took his own life, and with his death, the kingdom fractured. Ishbaal, Saul’s son, established his rule in Mahanaim, east of the Jordan River, while David seized power in Judah, reigning from 1013-973 B.C..

In 1006 B.C., David united Judah and Israel, restoring the monarchy and consolidating power. His reign saw the conquest of Jerusalem, which he made his capital, along with victories over the Philistines, Ammonites, and Edomites. However, internal strife plagued his later years, as tensions between Judah and Israel ignited rebellions—first from his son Absalom, and later from Queen Sheba (Bathsheba).

David was succeeded by King Solomon (973-933 B.C.), the son of Sheba, who formed alliances with Egypt (Dynasty XXI) and Hiram, King of Tyre. These partnerships allowed him to expand Israelite trade networks across land and sea. Solomon introduced taxation and forced labor, using these resources to build a great temple, a royal palace, and city walls for Jerusalem, along with public works in other cities. His reign became synonymous with prosperity and grandeur, his wealth and wisdom attaining legendary status.

However, Solomon’s policies provoked deep resentment among the northern tribes, particularly over the issue of heavy taxation. Upon his death, his son Rehoboam refused to ease their burdens, prompting secession. The northern tribes rebelled, declaring Jeroboam as their king, permanently splitting Israel and Judah into two separate kingdoms.

Kingdom of Israel

Jeroboam I (933-901 B.C.) established his rule over the northern Kingdom of Israel, choosing Shechem as his capital. His reign laid the foundation for the divided monarchy, though instability followed his death. His son Nadab (912-911 B.C.) was assassinated by Baasha (911-888 B.C.), a captain in his army, who seized the throne and made Tirzah the new capital. Seeking to cripple Judah’s economy, Baasha fortified Ramah, a key city north of Jerusalem, in an effort to restrict trade. However, his dynasty was short-lived—his son Elam (888-887 B.C.) was murdered by Zimri, his own chariot commander, who seized power but ruled for only one year before being overthrown.

With Zimri abandoned by his troops, the army declared Omri king (887-875 B.C.), ushering in a new era of expansion and strength for Israel. Omri moved the capital to Samaria, establishing it as the political and religious center of the kingdom. His reign saw northern Moab placed under tribute, though his efforts to subdue Damascus were unsuccessful. His son, Ahab, took the throne and married Jezebel, the daughter of the King of Tyre, allowing her to introduce Baal worship in Samaria. This provoked fierce resistance from the prophets Elijah and Elisha, whose influence would shape Israelite religious history. Ahab suffered defeat against Mesha, King of Moab, but managed to force peace terms on Ben-Hadad II of Damascus and later allied with him at the Battle of Qarqar (854 B.C.) against Shalmaneser III of Assyria. His dynasty continued briefly under his sons, Ahaziah of Israel (853 B.C.) and Joram (852 B.C.), but their rule ended in a violent purge.

Jehu (843-816 B.C.), the son of Jehoshaphat of Judah, staged a bloody coup, exterminating Omri’s dynasty along with the Judean royal family wherever he could reach them. For a short period, until 837 B.C., Jehu ruled both Israel and Judah, though his power was largely dependent on Assyrian support. To maintain his throne, he paid tribute to the Assyrians while aggressively purging Baal worship from Israel, executing its priests and followers. However, his actions provoked Hazael of Damascus, who launched retaliatory raids on Israel’s Transjordanian territories, further weakening the kingdom. Jehu’s successors, Jehoahaz (816-800 B.C.) and Joash (800-785 B.C.), struggled to resist Aramean incursions, leaving Israel in a state of decline.

Under Jeroboam II (785-744 B.C.), Israel briefly regained its strength. He reconquered lost territories, taking advantage of Assyria’s campaigns against Damascus in 773 B.C.. His reign marked the apex of Israel’s power and prosperity, but the prophets Amos and Hosea warned of impending doom. Their fears proved well-founded—his son, Zechariah, the last king of Jehu’s dynasty, was assassinated by Shallum, a captain from his own army.

Shallum briefly seized the throne but ruled for only one month before being killed by another officer, Menahem (744-738 B.C.). Under his reign, and that of his son Pekahiah (738-735 B.C.), Israel was forced to pay tribute to Assyria, becoming a vassal state. In a desperate attempt to resist Assyrian domination, Israel allied itself with Damascus, but this only hastened its destruction. Pekah (735-732 B.C.), another military usurper, was overthrown by Hoshea (732-722 B.C.), the last king of Israel.

Hoshea attempted to defy Assyrian rule, refusing to pay tribute, but his resistance was doomed. In 725 B.C., the Assyrians laid siege to Samaria, Israel’s last stronghold. After three years, in 722 B.C., the city fell, and the Kingdom of Israel ceased to exist.

Kingdom of Judah

Following the secession of northern Israel, Rehoboam (933-917 B.C.) struggled to subdue the breakaway kingdom, waging war with limited success. His efforts were further undermined in the fifth year of his reign, when Sheshonk I of Egypt led a large Libyan army into Judah, capturing many western cities and severely weakening his rule. His successors, Abijah (917-915 B.C.) and Asa (915-875 B.C.), continued the struggle against Israel. Asa achieved a major victory against Zerah the Kushite in the Valley of Zephathah (905 B.C.) and imposed strict national adherence to the Laws of Moses, earning him a reputation as a righteous ruler upon his death.

His son, Jehoshaphat (875-851 B.C.), ended hostilities with Israel by making peace with Ahab. His rule was marked by a successful campaign against a confederacy of Moabite forces, preserving Judean independence. He was succeeded by Jehoram of Judah (851-844 B.C.), the son of Jehoshaphat and Athaliah, daughter of Jezebel. However, his reign saw further instability, as he failed to suppress an Edomite rebellion and was forced to acknowledge their independence. His successor, Ahaziah of Judah (844 B.C.), was assassinated by his brother Jehu, a daughter of Jezebel, who seized power over both Israel and Judah. However, Jehu’s control over Judah was short-lived, as he was soon overthrown in a palace coup.

Jehoash (837-798 B.C.) abandoned Jewish religious traditions, turning instead to idolatry. His rejection of Judaism brought him into conflict with the prophet Zechariah, whom he had executed by stoning. As punishment, Damascus marched on Jerusalem, and Jehoash was forced to empty the royal treasuries in an attempt to bribe King Hazael into sparing the city. Despite this, the Syrians seized Jerusalem, executed its leading officials, and looted its wealth before departing. Weakened and disgraced, Jehoash was assassinated by his own servants.

His son, Amaziah (798-780 B.C.), sought to avenge his father’s murder and launched a campaign against Edom. After initial victories, his overconfidence led him to challenge Joash of Israel at Beth-shemesh, only to suffer a humiliating defeat. The consequences were severe—400 cubits of Jerusalem’s walls were destroyed, and the city, temple, and palace were plundered. Anger over his failed leadership led to a conspiracy, culminating in his assassination. His son, Uzziah (780-740 B.C.), ruled over a period of relative peace and prosperity, benefiting from Israel’s resurgence under Jeroboam II.

Uzziah’s son, Jotham (740-735 B.C.), waged war against Pekah of Israel and Rezin of Damascus. His successor, Ahaz (735-720 B.C.), ignored the warnings of the prophet Isaiah and sought aid from Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria, a decision that ultimately hastened Israel’s destruction. His son, Hezekiah (720-692 B.C.), defied Sennacherib of Assyria, leading to a disastrous war and the siege of Jerusalem in 701 B.C.. To save the city, Hezekiah capitulated, agreeing to heavy tribute payments. His son, Manasseh (692-630 B.C.), remained a loyal vassal of Assyria, embracing Assyrian religious practices and even encouraging idolatry among the people. His successor, Amon (639 B.C.), further indulged in idolatrous practices, provoking his assassination.

Amon’s son, Josiah (638-609 B.C.), embarked on a sweeping reform movement, seeking to restore Jewish worship and centralize religious practice in the Temple of Jerusalem. His efforts were facilitated by the decline of Assyrian power, culminating in the fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C..

Syria

After the destruction of Hattusa in 1180 B.C., the collapse of Hittite power led to a period of dispersal and ruralization throughout Syria. The once-great urban centers gave way to a landscape dominated by hamlets, villages, and farmsteads, reflecting the breakdown of centralized administration. In the wake of this turmoil, remnants of Hittite principalities struggled to maintain their identity, even as waves of Aramaic migrations transformed the region. These migrations introduced Arameans, Amorites, Moabites, Edomites, Ammonites, and Israelites into the Levant, further altering the ethnic and political landscape.

Carchemish

Among the surviving Hittite enclaves, the most prominent was Carchemish, an important city near present-day Jarabulus. Despite the collapse of the greater Hittite Empire, Carchemish retained political influence and continued to function as a regional power. It became a focal point of resistance against foreign incursions while also acting as a conduit for Hittite cultural traditions, which persisted in the region for centuries.

The city grew into a major trading center, serving as a hub for commerce and cultural exchange in the northern Fertile Crescent. Following the collapse of the Hittite Empire, Kuzi-Tesup I, son of the last Hittite king Talmi-Teshub, established a dynasty that ruled over a small but influential kingdom centered around the West Bend of the Euphrates. Under his descendants, Carchemish maintained dominance over northern Syria and southern Anatolia from 1175 to 975 B.C.. However, as external pressures mounted, the kingdom steadily lost control over its outer territories.

By the 9th century B.C., Carchemish had declined into a city-state, its power significantly diminished. In 849 B.C., it was forced to pay tribute to the rising kings of Syria, marking the end of its regional dominance. This weakened status persisted until 717 B.C., when the Assyrian king Sargon II launched a campaign against Pisiri, the last ruler of Carchemish. The city fell, becoming an important administrative and military center within the Assyrian Empire.

Aramean Kingdoms

The rise of Aramean kingdoms in Syria and Upper Mesopotamia began after 1000 B.C., as various Aramean groups established city-states and regional powers across the region. East of the Euphrates, notable Aramean polities included Beth-Eden, with Til Barsip as its capital; the city-state of Gozan; and Hadippe, whose capital was Suru. These eastern Aramean lands flourished for a time but came under increasing pressure from the Assyrian Empire, which forced them to pay tribute in the early 9th century B.C.. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III campaigned against the region, devastating Til Barsip in 857 B.C. and reducing the Arameans' control over their eastern holdings.

West of the Euphrates, Aramean kingdoms developed in the Levant, including Gargum (with Marash as its capital), Samal, Hattin, Hamath, Zobah, and most notably, Aram-Damascus. Among these, Aram-Damascus rose to become the most powerful Aramean kingdom, engaging in frequent conflicts with Israel, Assyria, and other regional powers. The smaller Aramean states to the north and west persisted as vassal states for centuries, though their independence remained fragile. Their fate was ultimately sealed between 720 and 719 B.C., when Sargon II of Assyria launched a final campaign, bringing them under direct Assyrian rule and ending their sovereignty.

Damascus

First settled under the Hittites, the region of Damascus was later occupied by the Arameans between 1000 and 965 B.C., who recognized the agricultural potential of the sparsely inhabited land. In 970 B.C., the Aramean leader Rezon, son of Eliada, established a dynasty after breaking away from Hadadezer, King of Zobah, under whom his father had served as a general. The newly formed state of Damascus expanded southward, creating a powerful buffer that halted the northward expansion of the Kingdom of Israel. This territorial rivalry sparked a series of conflicts that would persist for over a century.

The two kingdoms fought intermittently, though their rivalry was briefly set aside when King Ahab of Israel allied with Ben-Hadad II of Damascus at the Battle of Qarqar (854 B.C.), where they fought against the Assyrian army of Shalmaneser III. The worship of Baal was central to Damascus, and Israel’s rejection of the deity remained a point of religious and political tension between the two states.

However, neither kingdom would achieve decisive dominance, as the increasing intervention of the Assyrian Empire overshadowed their disputes. In 805 B.C., the Assyrians besieged Damascus during the reign of Ben-Hadad III, further weakening the city’s position. Internal divisions among the Aramean states also hastened its decline; an attempted coalition led by Damascus against Zakir of Hamath failed, further fracturing Aramean resistance. The final blow came in 732 B.C., when King Rezin of Damascus was captured and executed by Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria.

After its conquest, Damascus lost all political importance, becoming a vassal of the Assyrian Empire until 625 B.C., after which it fell under the control of Babylonia, marking the end of its independence.

Urartu

Urartu was a kingdom located in the large basin surrounding Lake Van, where the headwaters of the Araxes, Tigris and Arzanias begin. The kingdom includes the principalities of Kurshi, Suhni, Qaria and Gilzan. In population, the people were Hurrian, the same who descended into the upper Eurphates in the 17th century B.C. to found the Mitanni Kingdom. The descendents who remained behind in Urartu would learn to found iron and build with stone. The great temple of Haldi, located in the lost city of Musasir somewhere between Lake Urmia and Lake Van, was dedicated to the god Haldi and his consort. Tesheba, the god of storms, and Ardini, goddess of the sun, were part of the Urartan pantheon.

The numerous Hurrian principalities raided the Assyrians from the 13th century B.C. onwards. In the years 1113-1110 B.C., these Hurrian groups were united under a single king against the Assyrian Tiglath-pileser I. Further wars would be waged against Assyrian in 1070 B.C.; Adad-nirari II in 900; Tukulti II in 890; and with Ashurnasirpal II throughout his reign. These wars resulted in little gain on either side, but each viewed the other as a blood enemy.

Dynastic Period

During the reign of Arame (860-843 B.C.), the kingdom was threatened by the Assyrian Shalmaneser III, who defeated the Urartans and seized the capital Arzashkun (844). Arame was deposed by Lutipri (844-832), who paid tribute to the Assyrians. Lutipri was murdered by his son Sardur I (832-820), who re-established his capital at Tushpa and fortified it. Calling himself the King of the Four Quarters, he renewed raiding on Assyria during the kingship of the Assyrian Shamshi-Adad V.

Ishpuini (820-800 B.C.), son of Sardur I, reconquered Musasir, restored the temple and appointed his son Sardur the viceroy there. Following an attack by Shamshi-Adad V, this Sardur was killed and the kingdom fell to his younger brother Menua (800-785), who enlarged the kingdom considerably, restoring some lands the Assyrians had conquered to the kingdom and increasing the Urartu's power considerably in the time of Semiramis. Thereafter, Urartu would remain a serious threat on the flank of Assyria.

Argishtish (785-760 B.C.), son of Menua, annexed the territory along the Araxes and extended the boundaries of Urartu to the shores of Lake Erivan. He defeated Shalmaneser IV, conquered the lands of the Diauehi and the Ararat, making Urartu the most powerful state in Asia Minor. He built two great fortresses to maintain authority over these conquests. His son, Sardur II (760-733) was the last great king of Urartu, maintaining the kingdom at the height of its power. He fought Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria to a standstill; but this broke the expansion of Urartu.

Collapse

Between 733-612 B.C., the kings of Urartu steadily lost the territory gained by their forefathers; the primary reason was the Cimmerians, who migrated from the north beginning after 715 B.C.. This, coupled with the raid of Sargon II of Assyria, weakened the kingdom. By the reign of Sardur III (650-625), Urartu had lost its eastern lands. Phrygia had fallen under the control of the Cimmerians, who occupied that country and were under continuous assault from Lydia after the 640s B.C.. However, during the reign of the last king, Rusas III (625-612), Urartu was invaded by Scythians and their vassals, the Medes. This massive raid would also lead to the destruction of Ninevah (612 B.C.) and the fall of the Assyrian Empire.

Assyria

Assyria lay in the highlands north of Babylon, along the upper Tigris River and the waters of the Great and Little Zab Rivers. It's culture was deeply indebted to the Babylonian, to the Hittite and to the Hurrian. Except for the Assyrian roayl annals, which are historical sources of the greatest value and are inspired by Hittite models, for the most part Assyrian literature consisted of new editions of the ancient Babylonian works. In sculpture (particularly in the bas-reliefs depicting realistically religious scenes, hunts and military operations) and in architecture (influenced by the Hittite styles) the Assyrians surpassed the Babylonians, as also in the fields in which they made their greatest contribution: military equipment and imperial administration. In religion the Assyrians worshipped their national god, Ashur, along with Ishtar of Nineveh.

Consolidation

By 1232 B.C., Assyria had become a strong kingdom, occupying what remained of the old Mitanni Kingdom. The fall of the Hittites hurt their trade, in particular diminishing their source of wrought iron. Additionally, Kassite power (1220-1116 B.C.) threatened their southern frontier. Assyria recovered slowly, learning to work iron themselves. Surrounded by the Urartu to the north (Lake Van), Elamites to the east and the Kassites to the south, the Assyrians fought their enemies in order to secure their borders. After the fall of the Kassites, the native Babylonians in the south established the Middle Babylonian kingdom under Nebuchadnezzer I (1146-1123). After an attempt by the Babylonians to engage Assyria (1125 B.C.), king Assurresh I of Assyria (1133-1116) turned him back.

The great king Tiglath-pileser I (1116-1093 B.C.), son of Assurresh, fought successful campaigns against Mushku and Mulatia, overrunning the upper Euphrates and penetrating into the northern mountains south of Van; razed the Aramaeans east of the Euphrates; and secured the trade route to the Mediterranean, granting him access to Byblos and Sidon. This control over trade, held jointly with Carchemish, produced much wealth, which Tiglath-pileser used to restore the temples of Ashur and Hadad at the Assyrian capital of Assur.

Hard pressed between 1093 and 911 B.C. by the Aramaean kingdoms to the west and its other enemies, Assyria's survival was put to the test. The kingdom remained a well-defended state, however, whose warriors were the best in the world, with a stable monarchy. In many ways, Assyria was more secure than its potential rivals; this military and political foundation would help establish the later empire when it rose.

Expansion

The reduction of pressure by its neighbours encouraged Assyria to strike outwards, using the iron weapons and advanced military tactics that had been designed to withstand attacks for so long. Adad-ninari II (911-891 B.C.) regained former Assyrian territory that had been been seized by the Aramaeans (910) at the junction of the Khabur and Euphrates. After subduing Tabal and Kammunu (former Hittite provinces) to the north, Adad-ninari turned and twice attacked King Shamash of Babylonia (908 and 902 B.C.), annexing a large area of land north of the Diyala River and the towns of Hit and Zanqu. Campaigning in the west, he subjugated the Aramean cities of Kadmuh and Nisbin. Along with vast amounts of treasure acquired, he restored Phoenician trade routes to Assyria. His son Tukulti II (891-893 B.C.) continued his father's conquests, reducing the Hurrians to the northeast and the Urartians of Van.

Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 B.C.), son of Tukulti, embarked on a vast program of expansion. He was ruthless in war. An army using heavy & light cavalry and chariots was organized, including foreigners pressed into service. Advanced military equipment, such as battering-rams and siege engines, greatly increased the Assyrians' power. Ashurnasirpal campaigned successfully in the northeast and in Phyrgia. He reached the Mediterranean and compelled the Phoenician cities (siege of Tyre) to pay him tribute. Aram and the land between the Khabur and Euphrates rivers were conquered. Under him, the provincial administration was improved and the palace at Calah was adorned with remarkable bas-reliefs. With his death, the First Empire had been firmly established.

Shalmaneser III (859-824 B.C.), son of Ashurnasirpal II, fought against the kingdom of Urartu and against Ben-Hadad of Damascus and his allies. He campaigned against Ahab of Israel, fighting the battle of Qarqar against eleven kings, at which no clear victory was achieved by either side. He reduced Carchemish (849), forcing the city to pay tribute. He sacked Babylon in 843 B.C.. Defeating Hazael of Damacus (841), he spared the city rather than plunder it. Shalmaneser forced Tyre and Sidon to pay tribute, and exacted tribute from King Jehu of Israel also. This gave control of the Mediterranean trade to the Assyrians, making the empire very wealthy.

The Middle Period

Little further expansion took place under Shamshi-Adad V (824-810 B.C.) and his successor, the regent queen Semiramis. She reigned as queen regent for 42 years, during which time monuments were built throughout Assyria, a history of Assyria was written and many rituals of the Assyrian religion were established. Semiramis introduced the practice of castrating male youths, that she would be surrounded by eunuch servants and guards. Her son, Adad-nirari III, reigned as her puppet until 782 B.C. Semiramis continued to dominate the throne through the reigns of her grandson Shalmaneser IV (782-773) and his brother Ashur-dan III (773-755), until her death in 768. During the ceremony of her great funeral, Semiramis is said to have been resurrected as a demi-god; thereafter shrines appeared in her name throughout the empire, though the location of these shrines is today unknown.

Amidst plagues, rebellions and the expansion of Urartu, the empire would remain in disarray after Semiramis' death until Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 B.C.) rebuilt the empire and restored the army. Tiglath broke the expansion of Urartu, conquered Arpad and forced tribute from the Israelites and the Syrians. In 734 B.C., following a treaty with Ahaz of Judaea, he forced the submission of King Pekah of Israel and waged a campaign against Syria that would end in the occupation of that kingdom and the execution of King Rezin of Damascus, the last in his line. He deported the Reubenites, Gadites and people of Manasseh, exiling them to the lands of Halah, Habor and Hara. Finally, in 729 B.C., his army achieved the conquest of Babylon, whereupon Tiglath became King of Babylon as well as King of Assyria.

Tiglath-pileser's son, Shalmaneser V (727-722 B.C.), following a hopeless campaign against Sumeria, was succeeded to the throne by Sargon II (722-705 B.C.), the unacknowledged son of Tiglath. Sargon killed his half-brother Shalmaneser and ended the campaign in Samaria, destroying the Kingdom of Isreal. Soon after (720), Babylonia rose up in revolt against him, calling forward the Elamites as allies. The Elamites met Sargon's army on the Plains of Der, where Sargon was defeated, allowing King Marduk of Babylon to secure control of southern Mesopotamia.

Thereafter, Sargon destroyed Carchemish (717 B.C.) and raided into Urartu (717-714). A full-scale assault was attempted in 715 by the Urartans; this was turned back and again the two empires proved unable to defeat the other. It was after this war that incursions by the Cimmerians would lead to the collapse of both empires. Turning south again, Sargon waged a second war with Babylon (710-709 B.C.), taking Babylon and capturing a fleeing King Marduk, who sought asylum in Elam and did not receive it. Sargon would spare Marduk's life in exchange for yielding Mesopotamia. Sargon built a new capital, Dur Sharrukinh (now lost) near Nineveh.

Collapse of Assyria

Though Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.), son of Sargon II, ruled at the height of Assyria, the empire was too large to hold. Sennacherib faced insurrections in numerous provinces and especially in Babylonia, fomented by Egypt. Once again, Marduk claimed the Babylonia as his own; he held the city for 9 months (703-702) before fleeing before Sennacherib's Assyrians. Having settled with Babylonia, Sennacherib marched into the Levant (701) and reduced Judaea, forcing Hezekian of that kingdom to become a client of Assyria. He then seized the Phoenician trade cities of Sidon and Ashkalon (assuming their wealth), then defeated the Egyptians at Eltekeh. Therafter he returned to Babylon, where his hunt for Marduk led to an invasion of Elam, where the former Babylonian king was dwelling in exile. After a difficult campaign, the Elamites were defeated and Sennacherib destroyed Babylon (689). He lived the rest of his reign in relative peace.

His son Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.) had difficulty holding back the hordes of Cimmerians in the north. Rebuilding Babylon, Esarhaddon directed a campaign against Phoenician Tyre and Sidon (676) and then succeeded in entered Egypt in 671. Two campaigns against the Egyptians by Esarhaddon secured the eastern plain. Following his death (668), his son Ashurbanipal (668-625 B.C.) led two more campaigns into Egypt, sacking Thebes and Memphis (664) and securing Upper Egypt also.

This latter conquest soon faded; Ashurbanipal could not prevent Psammeticus of Sais from becoming master of Egypt. By 663 B.C., the Assyrian powers had withdrawn entirely from the Nile valley. Palestine and Syria after that would remain submissive, but Ashurbanipal's half brother Shamash-shumukin, appointed viceroy of Babylonia, rebelled; the resulting bloody civil war (652-648) severely weakened many of the empire's fortifications. After this, Ashurbanipal carried on campaigns against a newly established Babylonian kingdom (the Chaldaeans), the Arabs south of the Euphrates Valley and Elam. The Elamites were completely devastated over two campaigns in 646 and 640 B.C.. During his lifetime, Ashurbanipal was a patron of the arts and succeeded in assembling a great library at Ninevah.

The period between 625-605 B.C. saw a rapid disintigration of the Assyrian Empire. The Medians and Scythians, sweeping down from the north after the destruction of Urartu, devastated the northern provinces between 614-613 B.C.. Cyaxares, King of Media, made a pact with Nabopolassar, King of the Chaldaeans, and together they destroyed the city of Nineveh in 612 B.C. For a few years, an Assyrian general, Ashur-uballit, attempted to save a remnant of the empire with Harran as its capital, but he failed dismally (605) and the Assyrian Empire and nation ceased to exist.

Babylon

With the waning of the Kassites, Nebuchadnezzar I (1146-1123 B.C.) defeated the Elamites and consolidated the Middle Babylonian kingdom. He broke the back of the Kassite nobility, conquered the Amorites and after a failed campaign against the Assyrians, made peace with them. He would be succeeded first by his son Enlilnadin (1103-1100 B.C.), then by his brother Marduknadin (1099-1082 B.C.), who with other members of the court would put Enlilnadin to the sword so as to end the latter's campaign against Assyria. Marduknadin would himself be assassinated by Mardukshapik (1082-1069 B.C.), his brother.

During this period of chaos, amidst a succession of unimportant kings, the Aramaeans would raid into Babylonia, while fractious wars with Assyria would continue. The Kassites would reassert themselves (100-984); Babylonia would be plundered by the Aramaeans (977) and the kingdom would be restored under Nabumukin (977-943 B.C.). King Shamash of Babylonia (917-900 B.C.) would be defeated by Adad-Ninari II in 902 B.C., but though territory was lost, would remain in control of the kingdom. Between 900 and 850 B.C., Mesopotamia would be overrun by nomads, the Chaldaeans, who would settle in the marshes of the southeast, along the Persian Gulf.

The wars with Assyria were disastrous for Babylonia. Shalmaneser III of Assyria sacked Babylon (843 B.C.), killing king Nabuapla. Later kings were reduced to vassalage; Adad-ninari III of Assyria ruled Babylon as a viceroy under Semiramis (808-800 B.C.). Later kings would become vassals until Babylon was finally subjugated by Tiglath-pileser III in 729.

Chaldaean Babylon

After a series of unsuccessful rebellions against the Assyria, though these would sometimes grant momentary periods of self-rule for Babylonia, King Nabopolassar of Chaldaea (625-605 B.C.) united Babylonia. Forming an alliance with Cyaxares of Medea, he confronted the Assyrians, seized the city of Nippur and took part in the destruction of Nineveh in 612 B.C. Assyria collapsed and Nabopolassar established a dynasty that would last into the next century.

Scythia & Medea

See Also,
Ancient History
History
History (sage study)