Iron Age

The Iron Age describes the time period between 1200 and 600 B.C., where the widespread adoption of iron weapons and tools replaced the use of bronze. This transition was disrupted by the collapse of numerous civilisations during the first half of this period, often referred to as the Ancient Dark Age. As Mediterranean societies regained stability between 850 and 650 B.C., a transformed geopolitical landscape emerged, with power shifting westward from the Fertile Crescent to the Aegean.

Greece

Following the collapse of the Bronze Age civilisation of Mycenaeans (c.1100 B.C.) and the destruction of palaces and cities, the Hellenic peninsula and islands were ravaged by famine, leading to depopulation. Amongst the political instability, raiding of coastal settlements from the sea became commonplace. Education and writing ceased, and vital trade links were lost, while towns and villages were abandoned. Greece became isolated and backward for three centuries.

For a century prior to the collapse, Arcadian and Achaean peoples had already settled in the central Peloponnese; occupying Mycenae, they used the coast as a base for raiding Crete, Anatolia and the Levant. Ionians occupied Attica and Euboea, while the Boeotians settled in central Greece. The Thracians seized the north coast of the Aegean. Aeolians spread throughout the islands of the Aegean, notably Lesbos and Chios. Far to the north, the Illyrians occupied the east coast of the Adriatic. The greatest of these people were the Dorians, who were a backward warlike people who had first settled in Epirus. Between 1100-1000 B.C., the Dorians spread outwards to the south, displacing peoples in the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Megara and the Argolid. The most powerful Dorian tribe would settle in Lacedaemon and Laconia, where they would later become the Spartans. From these places, they built ships and raided Crete, Cos, Rhodes and Cyprus, destroying as they went and settling the lands with their own numbers. The many tribes, each occupying a small valley, plain or coastal part of the Greek peninsula, would dispute one another over territory ceaselessly for the next eight hundred years.

The isolation of Greece during these dark centuries saw a return to subsistence farming, with small, scattered communities relying on local resources to survive. The loss of writing meant that oral tradition became the primary means of preserving knowledge, leading to the development of myths and legends that would later define Greek identity. Warfare remained endemic, with constant skirmishes and raids shaping the political landscape. Despite these hardships, cultural continuity persisted, with older religious practices and artistic traditions carried forward in rudimentary forms. By the late 9th century B.C., contact with the eastern Mediterranean was slowly reestablished, leading to renewed trade and the eventual reintroduction of writing, marking the first steps toward the rise of the classical Greek world.

Aristocracy & Colonisation

By 900 B.C., monarchies across Greece had largely given way to aristocracies, as hereditary kings lost power or were reduced to ceremonial figures, with Sparta being the principal exception. The aristocrats, wielding iron weapons and amassing land, solidified their control at the expense of the lower farming classes, leading to renewed economic hardship and food shortages. After 800 B.C., the pressure of overpopulation and social unrest prompted a wave of colonisation, initially encouraged by the ruling elites as a means of diffusing internal discontent. Greek city-states established settlements across the Mediterranean, spreading Hellenic culture far beyond the mainland. Major colonies took root along the Anatolian coast, in Libya, and along the Nile at Naucratis (founded in 640 B.C.). Greek traders and settlers also reached the coasts of Gaul and Iberia, as well as the northern shores of the Black Sea. These outposts reestablished Greece as a central force in Mediterranean trade, linking the region's economies once more, while at home a vibrant culture emerged, inspired by myths and legends transmitted through oral tradition by bards like Homer (c.750-800 B.C.).

The expansion of trade brought an influx of luxury goods, including oils, wine, ivories, gold and silver, which in turn spurred advancements in metallurgy, pottery and other crafts. This technological and artistic growth enabled the Greeks to rival the Phoenicians, whose own trade networks were dominant in the Mediterranean. As commerce flourished, a more educated and cultivated population emerged, driven by an interest in philosophy, literature and the arts. The increased demand for labour also led to the widespread use of slaves, while the adoption of coinage, first introduced from Lydia, transformed economic practices. Individual city-states soon began minting their own coins, spurring competition and economic expansion.

In the cultural sphere, lyric poetry gained prominence, reflecting a growing appreciation for personal expression and artistic refinement. Greek art, once dominated by geometric patterns, shifted towards an oriental, or animal style, influenced by Eastern motifs and techniques. The early foundations of philosophy emerged with the Milesian School, where thinkers like Thales, Anaximenes and Anaximander pioneered new ideas in mathematics and logic, laying the groundwork for rational inquiry that would define Greek intellectual tradition in the centuries to come.

The Early Peloponnese

By 800 B.C., Sparta had firmly established its dominance over the central Peloponnesian peninsula and extended its reach by colonising the fertile lands of Messenia. In its expansion, Sparta waged war against Tegea, the leading city of the Arcadians, a people still fragmented and largely backward compared to the more developed Greek city-states. The Arcadians maintained a religious unity centered around the ancient rites conducted on Mt. Lycaeum, but this did little to unify them politically. Meanwhile, Corinth had emerged as a significant commercial hub, exerting influence over its smaller neighbor Megara until 720 B.C.. Argos, despite claiming hegemony over Greece as the successor of Mycenae, remained a relatively weak power, unable to assert control over its rivals.

In the First Messenian War (736-716 B.C.), Sparta, under the leadership of King Theopompus, launched a campaign to conquer Messenia. Following their victory, the Spartans seised the fertile plains and divided the land among themselves, forcing the native Messenians into servitude as helots, agricultural serfs bound to their Spartan masters. Alongside the Spartiates (full Spartan citizens) and the helots, there existed a third class known as the perioeci, free Laconians who lived in surrounding settlements but lacked full citizenship rights. Despite its growing military dominance, Sparta still maintained a vibrant cultural and intellectual life, particularly excelling in choral poetry, which was esteemed across Greece.

Under King Pheidon of Argos (c.680 B.C.), Argos briefly rose to power, defeating a coalition of Sparta and Tegea at the Battle of Hysiae in 669 B.C.. Pheidon further expanded Argive influence by supporting a rebellion in Aegina, defeating Epidaurus and its ally Athens in the process. His rule marked a significant moment in Greek economic history, as he introduced coinage to Greece, establishing a mint at Aegina. However, after his death, the monarchy's power was curtailed, and Argos declined as a major force in Greek affairs.

The Second Messenian War saw renewed rebellion from the helots, led by the formidable Aristomenes, ruler of Arcandia, who waged a prolonged resistance against Spartan rule. Retreating to Mt. Eira, Aristomenes and his followers resisted for years before being ultimately subdued. The costly struggle convinced the Spartans that internal unrest posed an existential threat, prompting them to implement the so-called Eunomia, a rigorous reorganisation of Spartan society into an even more militarised state, ensuring that future revolts could be suppressed swiftly and decisively.

Rise of Tyranny

By 650 B.C., the dominance of the aristocracies came under increasing strain as landless traders and artisans sought political representation. Unable to ignore the growing demands for change, the ruling elites saw their authority challenged by the rise of tyrants — leaders who, often with the backing of the wealthy, seized power to maintain order and prevent further unrest. In many cases, ambitious individuals exploited the instability to overthrow existing rulers and install themselves as absolute leaders. While these tyrants often came to power through force, they generally found favour with the populace by funding festivals, public works and infrastructure projects, securing popular support while sidelining the traditional aristocracy.

Despite their often autocratic rule, tyrants inadvertently weakened the nobility's grip on power. The rigid class and racial distinctions that had defined Greek society began to erode, and many city-states started to transition toward more democratic forms of government. The rule of tyrants paved the way for broader political participation, with reforms that, over time, would allow for the rise of citizen assemblies and representative governance in certain states. Some of the most notable tyrants of this period included Theagenes of Megara (640 B.C.), Thrasybulus of Miletus (620 B.C.) and Cleisthenes of Sicyon (600 B.C.), each of whom played a crucial role in reshaping the political landscape of their respective cities.

Athens

The nobles in Athens gradually curtailed the power of the monarchy, stripping the king of his military authority by transferring it to a polemarch and later assigning his civil responsibilities to an archon. By 683 B.C., the hereditary kingship had been completely abolished and replaced with an annual office, ensuring that no single ruler could maintain long-term control. Governance came to be dominated by a council of nobles known as the Areopagus, which became the supreme authority in the state. Though Athens technically maintained an ecclesia, or assembly of all freemen, it had either fallen into disuse or had been rendered politically powerless.

In 632 B.C., Cylon, a nobleman and relative of the tyrant Theagenes of Megara, attempted to seize control of Athens and establish a tyranny. His coup failed, and many of his followers, after surrendering under promises of safety, were betrayed and slaughtered by Megacles of the Alcmaeonid clan, an act that stained the Alcmaeonid family with religious and political infamy for generations. Seeking to impose order and reduce the cycle of private vengeance, Drako introduced Athens' first written legal code in 621 B.C.. While this system marked an important shift from oral law and blood feuds to a formal judicial structure, its severity made it deeply unpopular among the citizens. The laws were so uncompromisingly harsh that they gave rise to the term "draconian", still used to describe excessively severe legal measures. Despite their cruelty, Drako's laws laid the groundwork for the later reforms that would shape Athenian democracy.

Phrygia & Lydia

The Phrygians, along with the Mysians, originally occupied a minor vassal state of the Hittites, situated along the Sakarya River in central Anatolia. Their capital, Gordium, was established by King Gordius around 1250 B.C.. According to legend, his son, Midas, was cursed with the ability to turn everything he touched into gold. The Phrygians participated in the Trojan War on the side of Troy, and their connection to the city was cemented when King Priam married the Phrygian princess Hecuba. Following the collapse of the Hittite Empire around 1175 B.C., the Phrygians secured their independence, expanding steadily over the next centuries.

Acting as a barrier between Greece and the East, the kingdom reached its zenith in the 8th century B.C., at which point it dominated most of central and western Anatolia. The Phrygians developed their own writing system, engaged in trade with the Greeks, and were known for their Polished Ware pottery, which became a signature of their culture. Their chief deities included Cybele, the Great Mother who rode a chariot drawn by lions, and Attis, the god who died by castration but was reborn; his eunuch priests, known as Galli, maintained his cult, which would persist long after the kingdom's fall.

Phrygia ultimately met its end when it was overrun by the Cimmerians, a nomadic people from the north with cultural ties to the Scythians. These invaders first struck the Urartian kingdom in 714 B.C., but after suffering a defeat at the hands of Sargon II of Assyria in 705, they redirected their attacks westward. By 696-695 B.C., Phrygia had fallen completely to the Cimmerian onslaught, bringing its era of power to a close.

Lydia, another former Hittite vassal, achieved its independence in 1192 B.C.. Geographically positioned between Phrygia and the Aegean, Lydia became a crucial bridge between the eastern and western Mediterranean, excelling in commerce and craftsmanship. The Lydians were renowned for their skill as merchants, their expertise in horsemanship, and their innovation in coinage, which replaced the older system of bartering with precious metals. Their contributions extended into the arts, particularly in music and dance, and their cultural legacy includes Aesop, the famed storyteller. They worshipped Santas and Bacchus, gods associated with revelry and fertility. Their capital was Sardis, a city that would remain a major center of trade and administration for centuries.

Lydia was ruled by 22 successive generations of the Heraclid Dynasty, culminating in the reign of Candaules, who was assassinated in 687 B.C.. His killer and former confidant, Gyges, took the throne and founded the Myrmnadae Dynasty. Seeking to secure Lydia's position, Gyges forged an alliance with the Assyrians, crushed the Cimmerians in 685 B.C., and expanded Lydian territory. However, his support for Psamtik, the Egyptian ruler who expelled the Assyrians from Egypt, provoked a fresh Cimmerian invasion. Gyges fell in battle in 652 B.C., and Sardis was razed soon afterward.

His son, Ardys, inherited both the throne and the ongoing war against the Cimmerians, who had now occupied eastern Lydia and the former lands of Phrygia. Over the next 33 years, the conflict raged on. The tide finally turned in the 620s B.C., when the Assyrians inflicted a decisive defeat on the Cimmerians, allowing Ardys to annihilate them in 619 B.C.. After this, the Cimmerians vanished from history. Between 619 and his death in 603 B.C., Ardys continued Lydia's expansion, occupying Phrygia and pressing forward with the conquest of Greek coastal cities, a campaign first undertaken by Gyges.

Rome

The early Italian peoples, known as the Terramare, migrated into the Italian Peninsula from the Rhone and upper Danube valleys, bringing with them agricultural techniques and settlement patterns that shaped the region's early development. As they expanded, they encountered the maritime cultures of the Aegean world, which influenced their way of life. Among these early Italian tribes were the Samnites, Sabines and Latins, each of whom would play a critical role in the region's future. A more advanced group, the Umbrians and Oscans, arrived later from the middle Danube basin, introducing ironworking to the peninsula, which would revolutionise warfare, agriculture and craftsmanship.

Etruscans

The first clear evidence of Etruscan culture emerges around 900 B.C., marking the beginning of one of Italy’s most influential civilisations. Deeply influenced by Greek culture, the Etruscan civilisation reached its height around 750 B.C., during the early foundational period of Rome. Their dominance extended across Etruria, the Po Valley and Campania, though they were never unified under a single ruler. Instead, their power was distributed among a network of independent city-states, governed by prominent aristocratic families who held authority in their respective regions.

Among their many contributions, the Etruscans developed a writing system derived from the Greek alphabet, mastered ironworking and established a political structure that later influenced Roman governance. Their legacy can still be seen in the enduring municipal character of Italian history — just as modern Italian peasants often identify more with their local city than with the broader nation, so too did the Etruscans and later Romans structure their society around city-states and local governance.

As time passed, Etruscan power waned, and much of their civilisation faded, leaving behind little evidence that could withstand the waves of dramatic violence and upheaval that would engulf the Italian Peninsula for the next two thousand years. However, their influence endured, forming the cultural and political foundation upon which Rome would rise.

Founding of Rome

Destined to dominate the ancient Mediterranean world, Rome showed little indication of future greatness in its earliest days. Though the Italian Peninsula had been inhabited since prehistoric times, the specific site where Rome would rise was uninhabited before the 1st millennium B.C.. Even after its first settlement, the city remained nothing more than a small hamlet, precariously situated at a ford on the Tiber River. According to tradition, Romulus, the legendary son of a princess of Alba Longa, was its founder. The rulers of Alba Longa were, in turn, said to be descended from Aeneas, a fugitive of the Trojan War.

Throughout the 8th century B.C., small hilltop communities on the Palatine, Esquiline, Quirinal and Capitoline hills gradually coalesced into a single city, Rome, with a shared meeting place in the low-lying Forum. These early settlers belonged to diverse ethnic backgrounds, primarily Latin, but also Sabine, Etruscan and pre-Italic peoples. Rome's initial significance was likely not economic but military, serving as a Latin outpost positioned against the expanding Etruscans to the north.

The city's first king, Romulus (753-715 B.C.), established a monarchy that, following his reign, became elective rather than hereditary. The king's power was constrained by the Senate, an advisory council of 100 elders (known as patres), and the comitia curiata, an assembly of clans (curiae) that formally granted the newly elected king his authority. Roman society was divided into two classes: patricians, who alone could serve in the Senate, and plebeians, who lacked direct political power. The patricians were likely the wealthiest landowners, who, by organising themselves into curiae, elevated themselves above other citizens and consolidated their control over governance.

Numa Pompilius (715-673 B.C.), a Sabine, succeeded Romulus and shaped Rome's religious and political institutions. He is credited with establishing the Roman calendar, the Vestal Virgins and the cults of Mars, Jupiter and Romulus, as well as creating the office of Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Rome. His successor, Tullius Hostilius (673-641 B.C.), pursued military expansion, defeating Alba Longa and reducing it to a vassal state. Under Ancus Marcius (641-616 B.C.), Rome continued its campaigns against the Latins, forcibly resettling defeated peoples in newly conquered lands surrounding the Aventine Hill, further solidifying its control over central Italy.

Egypt

Following the collapse of Dynasty XX, the rising power of the high priests of Amon stripped authority from the descendants of Ramses II, marking the beginning of Dynasty XXI amid the broader collapse of Egypt's imperial influence. The priest-king Hrihor (1080-1074 B.C.) established his capital at Thebes, where he struggled to assert control over the nobles led by Smedes, who ruled from the Delta. This power struggle marked the start of the Third Intermediate Period, a time of decline and political fragmentation that parallelled the collapse of other great civilisations in the Near East.

Egypt descended into further disarray until the Libyan chief Sheshonk launched a decisive campaign in 945 B.C., seizing control and founding Dynasty XXII. His rule brought a century of relative stability, though Egypt remained weakened and divided. Establishing his capital at Bubastis, Sheshonk reasserted Egyptian authority and even campaigned into the Levant, briefly restoring Egypt's influence abroad. However, after the reign of Osorkon II (837 B.C.), the kingdom fractured once more. The priestly families of Amon established a separate Nubian kingdom based in Napata, creating Dynasty XXIII. Egypt fell into a prolonged state of anarchy and civil war, lasting until 718 B.C., when the Nubian ruler Kashta marched north, crushing the resistance of multiple native Egyptian kings and asserting his dominance over Upper Egypt.

By 712 B.C., Kashta's successor, Shabaka, completed the Nubian conquest of Egypt, establishing Dynasty XXV. The Kushite pharaohs sought to restore Egypt's former glory, undertaking vast construction and restoration projects at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa and Jebel Barkal. However, Egypt's influence had already diminished significantly, and an even greater threat loomed in the Assyrian Empire to the east. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon struck Egypt in a massive invasion between 671-663 B.C., defeating Pharaoh Taharqa, capturing Memphis, and pushing south as far as Thebes. Taharqa perished during the campaign, while his successor Tantamani retreated to Nubia. The sack of Thebes and Memphis in 664 by the Assyrians marked one of the most devastating blows to Egyptian power in its long history.

In 663 B.C., Tantamani attempted a final reconquest of Lower Egypt, launching a large-scale invasion. However, the campaign faltered, forcing him to withdraw permanently to Nubia, where the Kushite dynasty continued to rule independently. In the power vacuum left behind, Psammeticus of Sais (663-609 B.C.), a governor originally appointed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, emerged as Egypt's new leader. In 652, Psammeticus successfully threw off Assyrian rule, unifying the country and establishing Dynasty XXVI, ushering in what became known as the Saitic Revival, a last flourishing of Egyptian culture and military power before the coming of the Persians.

Phoenicia

Following the collapse of societies across the eastern Mediterranean, the Phoenician cities emerged as centers of trade, seafaring and colonisation. Rather than forming a unified state, Phoenicia consisted of a loose network of powerful city-states, each ruled independently yet bound together by common commercial interests. For over a millennium, the Phoenicians controlled one of the most expansive maritime trade networks in antiquity, dominating commerce across the Mediterranean world. The great cities of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut and Byblos flourished, continuing to thrive even after the decline of Egyptian influence along the Levantine coast following 1225 B.C.. However, not all Phoenician settlements survived; Ugarit was destroyed in 1200 B.C. by raiders from the sea, and Beirut fell to the Assyrians around 1100 B.C..

King Abibaal of Tyre (969-936 B.C.) established the Kingdom of Tyre, transforming it into the dominant Phoenician power. His son, Hiram I (936-918 B.C.), consolidated Tyre's supremacy, founding what became known as the Hegemony of Tyre. His rule saw the subjugation of Utica, a Phoenician colony that had attempted to rebel. Renowned for his skilled craftsmen and naval expertise, King Hiram famously allied with King Solomon of Israel, providing Phoenician shipbuilders and sailors to construct a fleet for Red Sea trade expeditions. After his reign, he was succeeded by Beleazarus (920-918 B.C.), followed by his grandson Abstartus (918-909 B.C.).

The reign of Abstartus ended abruptly when he was assassinated by the first of four brothers, sons of his nurse, who seized power and ruled in succession from 909-887 B.C.. These rulers — Astartus, Deleastartus, Astarymus and Phelles — destabilised the kingdom, leading to a period of internal conflict. Stability was restored under Ittobaal of Tyre (887-856 B.C.), a former priest of Baal, who established a new royal dynasty that ruled Phoenicia for over a century. However, Tyre's influence began to wane, and under pressure from the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire, the city was forced to pay heavy tributes to maintain its independence. In an effort to strengthen alliances against the Assyrians, Ittobaal's daughter, Jezebel, married King Ahab of Israel, bringing Baal worship to the Hebrew kingdom. Meanwhile, her brother Balbazer (846-841 B.C.) continued Tyre's struggle, submitting to Assyrian overlordship. He was followed by Mattan I (840-832 B.C.), who similarly governed under Assyrian dominance.

The last significant ruler of Tyre, Pygmalion (820-774 B.C.), shifted Phoenician trade networks away from the politically unstable Levant and Mesopotamia, redirecting commerce toward Cyprus, Greece and Sardinia. His reign marked a turning point in Phoenician expansion, as overseas colonies became increasingly self-sufficient. His sister, Dido, fled Tyre in 925 B.C. to escape his autocratic rule, eventually founding the powerful city of Carthage in 814 B.C., which would later eclipse Tyre in wealth and influence. Following Pygmalion's reign, Tyre and other Phoenician cities fell into a period of disunity and political disorder, with no clear rulers until Ittobaal II (750-739 B.C.), who briefly reestablished stability.

Assyrian Dominance

From the time of Pygmalion, the Assyrian Empire extracted tribute from Phoenician cities without fully subjecting them. This arrangement intensified after 738 B.C., when the cities were forced to pay an especially heavy levy to Tiglath-Pileser III. Though they retained nominal autonomy, Hiram II (739-730 B.C.) and Mattan II (730-729 B.C.) presided over a period of increasing Assyrian influence, as the hinterland of Phoenicia was gradually brought under direct Assyrian control.

During this time, Elulaios of Tyre (729-694 B.C.) sought to restore Phoenician dominance, successfully reconquering Cyprus after it had been seized by Sargon II. However, his efforts were ultimately in vain. When Sennacherib launched his military campaigns against the region, Elulaios was forced to flee to Cyprus, abandoning the mainland to Assyrian rule. From that point forward, Phoenicia and Cyprus fell completely under Assyrian dominion, with their independence effectively lost. Esarhaddon further cemented this control by destroying Sidon in 675 B.C., ending its prominence as a Phoenician power. Tyre, though spared from destruction, survived only in name, forced to pay heavy tribute to Ashurbanipal.

Following the collapse of Assyria in 612 B.C., the Phoenician city-states briefly regained their independence, emerging from centuries of foreign domination to reassert control over their trade networks and coastal settlements.

Israel & Judah

In the 11th century B.C., the ten tribes of Israel lived in Palestine among the Canaanites, existing as distinct but politically fragmented communities. Though they maintained their Israelite identity, they lacked any formal unity or centralised rule. Meanwhile, three other tribes — Simeon, Levi and Judah — resided in the southernmost regions of Palestine, separate from the northern tribes.

During this time, Jabin, the King of Canaan, exerted control over the Israelite tribes, imposing a period of harsh oppression. In 1107 B.C., six of these tribes responded to the call of the prophetess Deborah, rallying against the Canaanites and securing a decisive victory in the Valley of Jezreel. Leadership during this period was held by Judges, tribal champions who emerged in times of crisis to lead the people to military and religious renewal. However, none of these figures established a lasting dynasty. Among the most notable Judges, Gideon was followed by his seventy sons, who ruled jointly for a time. Ehud famously assassinated Eglon, the King of Moab, while Jephthah, a Gileadite, led the Israelites to victory against the Ammonites.

Internal conflict also plagued the Israelites. Around 1170 B.C., a civil war nearly annihilated the tribe of Benjamin, demonstrating the deep divisions that weakened the Israelite confederation. Meanwhile, the Philistines, a formidable sea-faring people, became an increasing threat to the Israelites along the coastal plain. The legendary figure Samson of Dan, active in the 1140s B.C., embodied the resistance against Philistine domination. His struggles marked the beginning of the long-standing conflict between Israel and the Philistines, a struggle that would ultimately force the tribe of Dan to migrate northward, seeking new lands far from the Philistine strongholds.

First Kings

The increasing pressure of Philistine domination led the Israelites to appoint their first king, Saul (1028-1013 B.C.), following his spectacular victory at Jabesh in Gilead. Saul achieved military success, notably defeating the Philistines at Michmash, but his reign ended in disaster when he suffered defeat at the Battle of Gilboa. Facing certain capture, Saul took his own life, and with his death, the kingdom fractured. Ishbaal, Saul's son, established his rule in Mahanaim, east of the Jordan River, while David seized power in Judah, reigning from 1013-973 B.C..

In 1006 B.C., David united Judah and Israel, restoring the monarchy and consolidating power. His reign saw the conquest of Jerusalem, which he made his capital, along with victories over the Philistines, Ammonites and Edomites. However, internal strife plagued his later years, as tensions between Judah and Israel ignited rebellions — first from his son Absalom, and later from Queen Sheba (Bathsheba).

David was succeeded by King Solomon (973-933 B.C.), the son of Sheba, who formed alliances with Egypt (Dynasty XXI) and Hiram, King of Tyre. These partnerships allowed him to expand Israelite trade networks across land and sea. Solomon introduced taxation and forced labor, using these resources to build a great temple, a royal palace and city walls for Jerusalem, along with public works in other cities. His reign became synonymous with prosperity and grandeur, his wealth and wisdom attaining legendary status.

However, Solomon's policies provoked deep resentment among the northern tribes, particularly over the issue of heavy taxation. Upon his death, his son Rehoboam refused to ease their burdens, prompting secession. The northern tribes rebelled, declaring Jeroboam as their king, permanently splitting Israel and Judah into two separate kingdoms.

Kingdom of Israel

Jeroboam I (933-901 B.C.) established his rule over the northern Kingdom of Israel, choosing Shechem as his capital. His reign laid the foundation for the divided monarchy, though instability followed his death. His son Nadab (912-911 B.C.) was assassinated by Baasha (911-888 B.C.), a captain in his army, who seized the throne and made Tirzah the new capital. Seeking to cripple Judah's economy, Baasha fortified Ramah, a key city north of Jerusalem, in an effort to restrict trade. However, his dynasty was short-lived — his son Elam (888-887 B.C.) was murdered by Zimri, his own chariot commander, who seized power but ruled for only one year before being overthrown.

With Zimri abandoned by his troops, the army declared Omri king (887-875 B.C.), ushering in a new era of expansion and strength for Israel. Omri moved the capital to Samaria, establishing it as the political and religious center of the kingdom. His reign saw northern Moab placed under tribute, though his efforts to subdue Damascus were unsuccessful. His son, Ahab, took the throne and married Jezebel, the daughter of the King of Tyre, allowing her to introduce Baal worship in Samaria. This provoked fierce resistance from the prophets Elijah and Elisha, whose influence would shape Israelite religious history. Ahab suffered defeat against Mesha, King of Moab, but managed to force peace terms on Ben-Hadad II of Damascus and later allied with him at the Battle of Qarqar (854 B.C.) against Shalmaneser III of Assyria. His dynasty continued briefly under his sons, Ahaziah of Israel (853 B.C.) and Joram (852 B.C.), but their rule ended in a violent purge.

Jehu (843-816 B.C.), the son of Jehoshaphat of Judah, staged a bloody coup, exterminating Omri's dynasty along with the Judean royal family wherever he could reach them. For a short period, until 837 B.C., Jehu ruled both Israel and Judah, though his power was largely dependent on Assyrian support. To maintain his throne, he paid tribute to the Assyrians while aggressively purging Baal worship from Israel, executing its priests and followers. However, his actions provoked Hazael of Damascus, who launched retaliatory raids on Israel's Transjordanian territories, further weakening the kingdom. Jehu's successors, Jehoahaz (816-800 B.C.) and Joash (800-785 B.C.), struggled to resist Aramean incursions, leaving Israel in a state of decline.

Under Jeroboam II (785-744 B.C.), Israel briefly regained its strength. He reconquered lost territories, taking advantage of Assyria's campaigns against Damascus in 773 B.C.. His reign marked the apex of Israel's power and prosperity, but the prophets Amos and Hosea warned of impending doom. Their fears proved well-founded — his son, Zechariah, the last king of Jehu's dynasty, was assassinated by Shallum, a captain from his own army.

Shallum briefly seized the throne but ruled for only one month before being killed by another officer, Menahem (744-738 B.C.). Under his reign, and that of his son Pekahiah (738-735 B.C.), Israel was forced to pay tribute to Assyria, becoming a vassal state. In a desperate attempt to resist Assyrian domination, Israel allied itself with Damascus, but this only hastened its destruction. Pekah (735-732 B.C.), another military usurper, was overthrown by Hoshea (732-722 B.C.), the last king of Israel.

Hoshea attempted to defy Assyrian rule, refusing to pay tribute, but his resistance was doomed. In 725 B.C., the Assyrians laid siege to Samaria, Israel's last stronghold. After three years, in 722 B.C., the city fell, and the Kingdom of Israel ceased to exist.

Kingdom of Judah

Following the secession of northern Israel, Rehoboam (933-917 B.C.) struggled to subdue the breakaway kingdom, waging war with limited success. His efforts were further undermined in the fifth year of his reign, when Sheshonk I of Egypt led a large Libyan army into Judah, capturing many western cities and severely weakening his rule. His successors, Abijah (917-915 B.C.) and Asa (915-875 B.C.), continued the struggle against Israel. Asa achieved a major victory against Zerah the Kushite in the Valley of Zephathah (905 B.C.) and imposed strict national adherence to the Laws of Moses, earning him a reputation as a righteous ruler upon his death.

His son, Jehoshaphat (875-851 B.C.), ended hostilities with Israel by making peace with Ahab. His rule was marked by a successful campaign against a confederacy of Moabite forces, preserving Judean independence. He was succeeded by Jehoram of Judah (851-844 B.C.), the son of Jehoshaphat and Athaliah, daughter of Jezebel. However, his reign saw further instability, as he failed to suppress an Edomite rebellion and was forced to acknowledge their independence. His successor, Ahaziah of Judah (844 B.C.), was assassinated by his brother Jehu, a daughter of Jezebel, who seized power over both Israel and Judah. However, Jehu's control over Judah was short-lived, as he was soon overthrown in a palace coup.

Jehoash (837-798 B.C.) abandoned Jewish religious traditions, turning instead to idolatry. His rejection of Judaism brought him into conflict with the prophet Zechariah, whom he had executed by stoning. As punishment, Damascus marched on Jerusalem, and Jehoash was forced to empty the royal treasuries in an attempt to bribe King Hazael into sparing the city. Despite this, the Syrians seized Jerusalem, executed its leading officials, and looted its wealth before departing. Weakened and disgraced, Jehoash was assassinated by his own servants.

His son, Amaziah (798-780 B.C.), sought to avenge his father's murder and launched a campaign against Edom. After initial victories, his overconfidence led him to challenge Joash of Israel at Beth-shemesh, only to suffer a humiliating defeat. The consequences were severe — 400 cubits of Jerusalem's walls were destroyed, and the city, temple and palace were plundered. Anger over his failed leadership led to a conspiracy, culminating in his assassination. His son, Uzziah (780-740 B.C.), ruled over a period of relative peace and prosperity, benefiting from Israel's resurgence under Jeroboam II.

Uzziah's son, Jotham (740-735 B.C.), waged war against Pekah of Israel and Rezin of Damascus. His successor, Ahaz (735-720 B.C.), ignored the warnings of the prophet Isaiah and sought aid from Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria, a decision that ultimately hastened Israel's destruction. His son, Hezekiah (720-692 B.C.), defied Sennacherib of Assyria, leading to a disastrous war and the siege of Jerusalem in 701 B.C.. To save the city, Hezekiah capitulated, agreeing to heavy tribute payments. His son, Manasseh (692-630 B.C.), remained a loyal vassal of Assyria, embracing Assyrian religious practices and even encouraging idolatry among the people. His successor, Amon (639 B.C.), further indulged in idolatrous practices, provoking his assassination.

Amon's son, Josiah (638-609 B.C.), embarked on a sweeping reform movement, seeking to restore Jewish worship and centralise religious practice in the Temple of Jerusalem. His efforts were facilitated by the decline of Assyrian power, culminating in the fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C..

Syria

After the destruction of Hattusa in 1180 B.C., the collapse of Hittite power led to a period of dispersal and ruralisation throughout Syria. The once-great urban centers gave way to a landscape dominated by hamlets, villages and farmsteads, reflecting the breakdown of centralised administration. In the wake of this turmoil, remnants of Hittite principalities struggled to maintain their identity, even as waves of Aramaic migrations transformed the region. These migrations introduced Arameans, Amorites, Moabites, Edomites, Ammonites and Israelites into the Levant, further altering the ethnic and political landscape.

Carchemish

Among the surviving Hittite enclaves, the most prominent was Carchemish, an important city near present-day Jarabulus. Despite the collapse of the greater Hittite Empire, Carchemish retained political influence and continued to function as a regional power. It became a focal point of resistance against foreign incursions while also acting as a conduit for Hittite cultural traditions, which persisted in the region for centuries.

The city grew into a major trading center, serving as a hub for commerce and cultural exchange in the northern Fertile Crescent. Following the collapse of the Hittite Empire, Kuzi-Tesup I, son of the last Hittite king Talmi-Teshub, established a dynasty that ruled over a small but influential kingdom centered around the West Bend of the Euphrates. Under his descendants, Carchemish maintained dominance over northern Syria and southern Anatolia from 1175 to 975 B.C.. However, as external pressures mounted, the kingdom steadily lost control over its outer territories.

By the 9th century B.C., Carchemish had declined into a city-state, its power significantly diminished. In 849 B.C., it was forced to pay tribute to the rising kings of Syria, marking the end of its regional dominance. This weakened status persisted until 717 B.C., when the Assyrian king Sargon II launched a campaign against Pisiri, the last ruler of Carchemish. The city fell, becoming an important administrative and military center within the Assyrian Empire.

Aramean Kingdoms

The rise of Aramean kingdoms in Syria and Upper Mesopotamia began after 1000 B.C., as various Aramean groups established city-states and regional powers across the region. East of the Euphrates, notable Aramean polities included Beth-Eden, with Til Barsip as its capital; the city-state of Gozan; and Hadippe, whose capital was Suru. These eastern Aramean lands flourished for a time but came under increasing pressure from the Assyrian Empire, which forced them to pay tribute in the early 9th century B.C.. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III campaigned against the region, devastating Til Barsip in 857 B.C. and reducing the Arameans' control over their eastern holdings.

West of the Euphrates, Aramean kingdoms developed in the Levant, including Gargum (with Marash as its capital), Samal, Hattin, Hamath, Zobah and most notably, Aram-Damascus. Among these, Aram-Damascus rose to become the most powerful Aramean kingdom, engaging in frequent conflicts with Israel, Assyria and other regional powers. The smaller Aramean states to the north and west persisted as vassal states for centuries, though their independence remained fragile. Their fate was ultimately sealed between 720 and 719 B.C., when Sargon II of Assyria launched a final campaign, bringing them under direct Assyrian rule and ending their sovereignty.

Damascus

First settled under the Hittites, the region of Damascus was later occupied by the Arameans between 1000 and 965 B.C., who recognised the agricultural potential of the sparsely inhabited land. In 970 B.C., the Aramean leader Rezon, son of Eliada, established a dynasty after breaking away from Hadadezer, King of Zobah, under whom his father had served as a general. The newly formed state of Damascus expanded southward, creating a powerful buffer that halted the northward expansion of the Kingdom of Israel. This territorial rivalry sparked a series of conflicts that would persist for over a century.

The two kingdoms fought intermittently, though their rivalry was briefly set aside when King Ahab of Israel allied with Ben-Hadad II of Damascus at the Battle of Qarqar (854 B.C.), where they fought against the Assyrian army of Shalmaneser III. The worship of Baal was central to Damascus, and Israel's rejection of the deity remained a point of religious and political tension between the two states.

However, neither kingdom would achieve decisive dominance, as the increasing intervention of the Assyrian Empire overshadowed their disputes. In 805 B.C., the Assyrians besieged Damascus during the reign of Ben-Hadad III, further weakening the city's position. Internal divisions among the Aramean states also hastened its decline; an attempted coalition led by Damascus against Zakir of Hamath failed, further fracturing Aramean resistance. The final blow came in 732 B.C., when King Rezin of Damascus was captured and executed by Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria.

After its conquest, Damascus lost all political importance, becoming a vassal of the Assyrian Empire until 625 B.C., after which it fell under the control of Babylonia, marking the end of its independence.

Urartu

Urartu was a kingdom situated in the large basin surrounding Lake Van, where the headwaters of the Araxes, Tigris and Arzanias Rivers originate. The kingdom encompassed several principalities, including Kurshi, Suhni, Qaria and Gilzan. Its population was predominantly Hurrian, descended from the same Hurrian groups who, in the 17th century B.C., migrated to the upper Euphrates and established the Mitanni Kingdom. However, those who remained behind in Urartu developed their own distinct culture, learning to forge iron and build with stone, laying the foundations of a powerful regional state.

A defining feature of Urartu was its religious devotion, centered around the great temple of Haldi, located in the lost city of Musasir, which lay somewhere between Lake Urmia and Lake Van. Haldi, the chief deity of the Urartian pantheon, was worshipped alongside his consort, while other important deities included Tesheba, the storm god, and Ardini, the goddess of the sun.

From as early as the 13th century B.C., the Hurrian principalities of Urartu waged raids against Assyria, fostering a rivalry that would last for centuries. By 1113-1110 B.C., these disparate Hurrian groups had united under a single king, launching a coordinated resistance against Tiglath-Pileser I of Assyria. This initiated a long series of conflicts between the two powers, including major wars in 1070 B.C., 900 B.C. under Adad-nirari II, 890 B.C. under Tukulti-Ninurta II, and throughout the reign of Ashurnasirpal II. Despite their frequent clashes, neither Assyria nor Urartu could achieve a decisive victory, and the two civilisations came to regard one another as bitter blood enemies.

Dynastic Period

During the reign of Arame (860-843 B.C.), Urartu faced a significant threat from Shalmaneser III of Assyria, who launched a decisive campaign against the kingdom. In 844 B.C., the Assyrians defeated the Urartians and seized Arzashkun, the Urartian capital, dealing a severe blow to Urartu's power. In the aftermath, Arame was deposed by Lutipri (844-832 B.C.), who submitted to Assyrian rule and paid tribute to Shalmaneser III. However, Lutipri's reign ended in turmoil when he was murdered by his son, Sardur I (832-820 B.C.), who seized the throne and re-established Urartu's independence.

Sardur I relocated the Urartian capital to Tushpa, fortifying it as the new center of the kingdom. Declaring himself "King of the Four Quarters", he rejected Assyrian dominance and resumed raiding campaigns against Assyria during the rule of Shamshi-Adad V. This marked the beginning of Urartu's resurgence, as Sardur sought to expand and consolidate his kingdom.

His son, Ishpuini (820-800 B.C.), continued this policy of expansion. He reconquered Musasir, restoring the Temple of Haldi, and appointed his son, Sardur, as viceroy of the city. However, an Assyrian counterattack under Shamshi-Adad V led to the death of Sardur, leaving the kingdom in the hands of Menua (800-785 B.C.), Ishpuini's younger son. Under Menua, Urartu expanded dramatically, reclaiming lost territories and challenging Assyrian control over the region. His reign coincided with the legendary rule of Semiramis, a semi-mythical queen of Assyria, and his conquests firmly established Urartu as a dominant force in Asia Minor.

Argishti I (785-760 B.C.), son of Menua, annexed territories along the Araxes River, extending Urartu's borders to the shores of Lake Erivan. His campaigns against the Diauehi and the Ararat further expanded Urartu's influence, making it the most powerful state in Asia Minor at the time. To solidify his rule over these conquests, Argishti built two great fortresses, securing Urartian authority in the region.

His son, Sardur II (760-733 B.C.), was the last great king of Urartu, presiding over the kingdom at its height of power. He successfully held off Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria, fighting him to a standstill and preserving Urartu's independence. However, this struggle against the Assyrians marked the end of Urartian expansion, as prolonged conflict drained its resources and prevented further territorial gains. Though Sardur II maintained Urartu's dominance, his reign signaled the beginning of the kingdom's slow decline, as Assyria regained its strength and prepared for future campaigns against its long-standing rival.

Collapse

Between 733 and 612 B.C., the kings of Urartu steadily lost territory, reversing the conquests of their forefathers. The primary cause of this decline was the Cimmerian migrations, which began after 715 B.C. and destabilised the region. The Cimmerians, a nomadic people from the north, launched a series of devastating incursions, weakening Urartu's defenses and disrupting its trade and economy. This internal strife was compounded by the raids of Sargon II of Assyria, whose campaigns inflicted further damage on the already struggling kingdom.

By the reign of Sardur III (650-625 B.C.), Urartu had lost its eastern territories, ceding ground to Assyria and the Cimmerians. Meanwhile, Phrygia, a former regional power, had been completely subjugated by the Cimmerians, who occupied the country and found themselves locked in a protracted war with Lydia beginning in the 640s B.C..

During the reign of the last Urartian king, Rusas III (625-612 B.C.), a final blow was delivered by Scythian invaders, accompanied by their vassals, the Medes. This massive raid shattered what remained of Urartu's power, leading to the kingdom's collapse. The same wave of destruction swept across Mesopotamia, culminating in the fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C. and the final destruction of the Assyrian Empire. With Urartu's capital and strongholds in ruins, the kingdom ceased to exist as a significant power, its lands falling under the control of the Medes and later the Achaemenid Persians.

Assyria

Assyria was situated in the highlands north of Babylon, along the upper Tigris River and the waters of the Great and Little Zab Rivers. Its culture was deeply indebted to Babylonian, Hittite and Hurrian traditions, incorporating elements from all three civilizations into its own distinct identity. While Assyrian literature was largely composed of new editions of ancient Babylonian texts, its royal annals, modelled after Hittite historical records, remain some of the most valuable historical sources from the period.

In the arts, Assyria excelled in sculpture, particularly in bas-reliefs, which depicted religious rituals, royal hunts and military campaigns with remarkable realism. Assyrian architecture, heavily influenced by Hittite styles, was also notable for its grandeur, featuring massive palaces, ziggurats and fortress-like citadels. However, the greatest contributions of Assyria lay in its advancements in military technology and imperial administration, both of which would set the standard for later empires.

Religiously, the Assyrians venerated their national god, Ashur, who was regarded as the supreme deity and the divine patron of empire and conquest. Alongside Ashur, they also worshipped Ishtar of Nineveh, the goddess of love, war and fertility, whose influence remained deeply embedded in Assyrian society and religious life.

Consolidation

By 1232 B.C., Assyria had emerged as a powerful kingdom, consolidating control over the remnants of the Mitanni Kingdom. However, the fall of the Hittites disrupted long-established trade networks, particularly cutting off the Assyrians' supply of wrought iron, which was essential for military and economic expansion. Meanwhile, the Kassite rulers of Babylon (1220-1116 B.C.) posed a significant threat to Assyria's southern frontier, forcing the kingdom into a defensive posture. Slowly, Assyria adapted, learning to forge iron independently and beginning to expand its influence once again.

Surrounded by Urartu to the north (around Lake Van), Elam to the east and the Kassites in the south, the Assyrians waged continual wars to secure their borders and assert their dominance. With the collapse of Kassite power, native Babylonians reasserted control, founding the Middle Babylonian Kingdom under Nebuchadnezzar I (1146-1123 B.C.). A brief conflict ensued in 1125 B.C., when Babylon attempted an invasion of Assyria, only to be repelled by King Assurresh I (1133-1116 B.C.), ensuring Assyrian control over its southern frontier.

The great Assyrian king, Tiglath-Pileser I (1116-1093 B.C.), son of Assurresh, ushered in a period of military expansion. His campaigns secured Assyrian dominance across northern Mesopotamia and the Levant. He waged successful wars against Mushku and Mulatia, pushing deep into the Upper Euphrates and the northern mountains south of Lake Van. He launched brutal raids against the Arameans east of the Euphrates, reducing their ability to challenge Assyrian authority. His conquests opened trade routes to the Mediterranean, granting Assyria access to Byblos and Sidon, which became major centers of commerce. Control over these trade networks, shared with Carchemish, brought immense wealth into Assyria, allowing Tiglath-Pileser to restore the great temples of Ashur and Hadad in the Assyrian capital of Assur.

Between 1093 and 911 B.C., Assyria faced severe challenges, as Aramean kingdoms to the west launched repeated incursions, and other regional powers sought to curb its growing influence. Despite these threats, Assyria remained resilient, with a highly trained army, fortified cities, and a stable monarchy that preserved the kingdom's internal cohesion. Unlike its rivals, Assyria's military strength and centralised administration ensured its survival and dominance, providing the foundations for the later rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

Expansion

The reduction of external pressure on Assyria enabled its rulers to shift from a defensive posture to an era of aggressive expansion, fueled by iron weaponry and advanced military tactics developed during years of warfare. Adad-Nirari II (911-891 B.C.) initiated this new phase of conquest, reclaiming former Assyrian lands that had fallen to the Arameans. In 910 B.C., he successfully recaptured the vital junction of the Khabur and Euphrates Rivers, restoring control over key trade routes and strategic fortresses. Turning northward, he subdued Tabal and Kammunu, former Hittite provinces, securing the kingdom's northern flank. In the south, he twice invaded Babylonia (908 and 902 B.C.), seizing a large area north of the Diyala River, as well as the towns of Hit and Zanqu. His western campaigns led to the subjugation of Kadmuh and Nisbin, both prominent Aramean cities. Alongside these territorial gains, his conquests revived Assyria's access to Phoenician trade, bringing wealth and tribute into the empire.

His son, Tukulti-Ninurta II (891-884 B.C.), continued these expansionist policies, directing campaigns northeast against the Hurrians and northward into Urartu, striking at Lake Van. His efforts further weakened Urartu's defenses, setting the stage for future conquests.

The reign of Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 B.C.) marked the beginning of a vast territorial expansion. Known for his ruthlessness in war, he organised a powerful standing army, incorporating heavy and light cavalry, chariots and foreign mercenaries pressed into service. The development of advanced siege equipment, including battering rams and siege engines, further increased Assyria's military effectiveness. He campaigned successfully in the northeast, extending Assyrian control into Phrygia, and reached the Mediterranean coast, where he besieged Tyre and compelled the Phoenician cities to pay tribute. His western conquests secured control over Aram and the region between the Khabur and Euphrates Rivers. Domestically, Ashurnasirpal II reformed provincial administration, strengthening imperial governance. His reign also saw great artistic and architectural achievements, notably in Calah, where he built a grand palace adorned with magnificent bas-reliefs. By the time of his death, the First Assyrian Empire had been firmly established.

His son, Shalmaneser III (859-824 B.C.), continued his father's expansionist policies, waging war against Urartu while also facing resistance from Ben-Hadad of Damascus and his allies. He fought against Ahab of Israel at the Battle of Qarqar (854 B.C.), engaging an alliance of eleven kings; though no side achieved a decisive victory, the battle demonstrated Assyria's military dominance in the region. In 849 B.C., he besieged Carchemish, forcing it to pay tribute, and in 843 B.C., he sacked Babylon, asserting Assyria's supremacy over Mesopotamia. In 841 B.C., he defeated Hazael of Damascus but, in an unusual act of restraint, spared the city rather than looting it. Under his rule, Tyre and Sidon were forced to pay tribute, and Jehu of Israel submitted to Assyrian authority. By securing these Mediterranean trade hubs, Shalmaneser III vastly enriched the empire, consolidating Assyria's control over regional commerce and ensuring its continued dominance in the Near East.

The Middle Period

Little further expansion occurred under Shamshi-Adad V (824-810 B.C.) and his successor, the regent queen Semiramis, who ruled for 42 years. During her regency, monuments were constructed throughout Assyria, a history of Assyria was compiled, and many rituals of the Assyrian religion were formalised. She also introduced the practice of castrating male youths, ensuring that she was surrounded by eunuch servants and guards, a tradition that would persist in later Near Eastern courts.

Her son, Adad-Nirari III, technically reigned from 810-782 B.C., but he remained her puppet ruler. Even after his death, Semiramis continued to wield power, dominating the reigns of her grandson, Shalmaneser IV (782-773 B.C.), and his brother, Ashur-Dan III (773-755 B.C.), until her death in 768 B.C.. During her lavish funeral ceremony, it was claimed that she had been resurrected as a demi-goddess, leading to the construction of shrines in her honor throughout the empire, though none of these sites are known today.

Following Semiramis' death, the empire fell into turmoil, plagued by rebellions, devastating plagues and the resurgence of Urartu, which expanded aggressively into Assyrian territory. The kingdom remained in disarray until Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 B.C.) restored order and rebuilt the army, launching a second phase of Assyrian imperial expansion. He halted the expansion of Urartu, conquered Arpad, and forced the Israelites and Syrians to pay tribute. In 734 B.C., following an alliance with Ahaz of Judah, Tiglath-Pileser crushed King Pekah of Israel, reducing his kingdom to a vassal state. His campaign against Syria culminated in the occupation of Damascus and the execution of King Rezin, the last ruler of Aram-Damascus.

Tiglath-Pileser also initiated the mass deportation of conquered peoples, exiling the Reubenites, Gadites and the people of Manasseh to the distant regions of Halah, Habor and Hara. Finally, in 729 B.C., his armies captured Babylon, and Tiglath-Pileser proclaimed himself King of Babylon, ruling both Assyria and southern Mesopotamia.

His successor, Shalmaneser V (727-722 B.C.), launched an ultimately unsuccessful campaign against Samaria, only to be overthrown by Sargon II (722-705 B.C.), an unacknowledged son of Tiglath-Pileser III. Sargon assassinated his half-brother and ended the campaign in Samaria, completing the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel and deporting its people. In 720 B.C., Babylonia revolted, seeking support from the Elamites. Sargon's forces clashed with Elamite and Babylonian troops on the Plains of Der, suffering a major defeat. This allowed King Marduk-apla-iddina of Babylon to secure control over southern Mesopotamia, briefly reviving Babylonian independence.

Undeterred, Sargon turned west, destroying Carchemish in 717 B.C. and launching repeated raids into Urartu (717-714 B.C.). In 715 B.C., the Urartians mounted a counteroffensive, but neither empire could achieve a decisive victory. The emergence of the Cimmerians, migrating from the north, would soon prove disastrous, destabilising both Assyria and Urartu and accelerating their decline. Sargon then turned southward for a second war with Babylon (710-709 B.C.), ultimately capturing the city and forcing King Marduk to surrender. Marduk fled to Elam, but the Elamites refused to grant him asylum. Sargon, instead of executing him, offered clemency in exchange for Babylon's submission.

In the final years of his reign, Sargon constructed a new capital, Dur-Sharrukin, near Nineveh. Though meant to symbolise Assyrian supremacy, the city was later abandoned after his death, and Nineveh once again became the heart of the empire.

Collapse of Assyria

Though Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.), son of Sargon II, ruled at the height of Assyrian power, the empire had grown too vast to govern effectively. His reign was marked by constant insurrections, particularly in Babylonia, where Egyptian influence continued to stir rebellion. Once again, Marduk-apla-iddina II proclaimed himself King of Babylon, holding the city for nine months (703-702 B.C.) before fleeing before Sennacherib's advancing armies.

Having dealt with Babylonia, Sennacherib turned westward, launching a campaign in the Levant (701 B.C.). He devastated Judah, forcing King Hezekiah to become a vassal of Assyria. Moving against the Phoenician trade cities, he seized Sidon and Ashkelon, acquiring their immense wealth. His campaign continued south, where he defeated the Egyptians at Eltekeh. Victorious, he returned to Babylon, where his hunt for Marduk led him to invade Elam, where the deposed Babylonian king had sought refuge. After a hard-fought campaign, the Elamites were defeated, and in 689 B.C., Sennacherib razed Babylon to the ground, a destruction so complete that he left the city in ruins for years. The remainder of his reign passed in relative peace, with Assyria's dominance unquestioned.

His son, Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.), inherited an empire under constant threat from northern invaders, particularly the Cimmerians. He devoted much of his reign to rebuilding Babylon, restoring its temples and infrastructure. In the west, he campaigned against Tyre and Sidon (676 B.C.), further strengthening Assyrian control over Phoenicia. His greatest achievement came in 671 B.C., when he invaded Egypt, securing the eastern Nile after two major campaigns. However, his sudden death in 668 B.C. left the empire vulnerable.

His son, Ashurbanipal (668-625 B.C.), launched two more invasions of Egypt, capturing Thebes and Memphis (664 B.C.), momentarily securing Upper Egypt. However, Assyrian control over the Nile Valley quickly eroded, as Psammeticus of Sais emerged as the independent ruler of Egypt. By 663 B.C., the Assyrians had withdrawn entirely from Egypt, marking the end of their influence there.

Despite losing Egypt, Ashurbanipal maintained Assyrian authority in Palestine and Syria, though he faced an even greater threat from within. His half-brother, Shamash-shum-ukin, the viceroy of Babylonia, launched a rebellion (652-648 B.C.), leading to a brutal civil war that severely weakened Assyria's defenses. The conflict devastated many of the empire's key fortifications and cities, leaving Assyria vulnerable to outside enemies.

Following the Babylonian war, Ashurbanipal led military campaigns against the Chaldaeans, the Arabian tribes south of the Euphrates, and the Elamites. His two invasions of Elam (646 and 640 B.C.) completely devastated the kingdom, eliminating Elam as a major power. A great patron of the arts, Ashurbanipal amassed a vast royal library in Nineveh, which remains one of the most significant sources of knowledge on Mesopotamian civilisation.

Between 625 and 605 B.C., the Assyrian Empire rapidly disintegrated. The Medes and Scythians, having destroyed Urartu, swept into Assyria's northern provinces (614-613 B.C.), inflicting widespread destruction. The Median king Cyaxares formed an alliance with Nabopolassar, King of the Chaldaeans, and in 612 B.C., their combined forces sacked and destroyed Nineveh, the Assyrian capital. A final attempt to preserve Assyria was led by the general Ashur-uballit, who established a remnant kingdom centered at Harran. However, in 605 B.C., the Babylonians and Medes crushed the last Assyrian resistance, and the Assyrian Empire ceased to exist, marking the end of one of history's most powerful civilisations.

Babylon

With the waning of the Kassites, Nebuchadnezzar I (1146-1123 B.C.) defeated the Elamites and consolidated the Middle Babylonian Kingdom. He broke the power of the Kassite nobility, conquered the Amorites, and, after a failed campaign against Assyria, made peace with them. He was succeeded first by his son Enlilnadin (1103-1100 B.C.), then by his brother Marduknadin (1099-1082 B.C.), who, along with other members of the court, had Enlilnadin put to the sword to end his disastrous campaign against Assyria. Marduknadin would himself be assassinated by his brother Mardukshapik (1082-1069 B.C.), continuing the cycle of internal bloodshed.

During this period of chaos, as a succession of weak and unimportant kings took the throne, Aramean tribes raided deep into Babylonia, while fratricidal wars with Assyria persisted. The Kassites briefly reasserted control (1000-984 B.C.), but Babylon was again plundered by the Arameans in 977 B.C.. Stability was temporarily restored under King Nabumukin (977-943 B.C.), but the kingdom remained weakened and vulnerable.

King Shamash of Babylonia (917-900 B.C.) was defeated by Adad-Nirari II in 902 B.C., resulting in territorial losses, though Babylonia remained an independent state. Between 900 and 850 B.C., Mesopotamia was overrun by nomadic Chaldean tribes, who settled in the marshes of the southeast, along the Persian Gulf.

The wars with Assyria proved disastrous. Shalmaneser III of Assyria sacked Babylon in 843 B.C., killing King Nabuapla and reducing Babylonian rulers to vassalage. Adad-Nirari III of Assyria later ruled Babylon as a viceroy under Queen Semiramis (808-800 B.C.). Subsequent kings remained subject to Assyrian rule, until Tiglath-Pileser III finally subjugated Babylon completely in 729 B.C., marking the end of Babylon's independence for nearly a century.

Chaldaean Babylon

After a series of unsuccessful rebellions against Assyrian rule, Babylonia experienced short-lived periods of independence, though these were always short-lived and crushed by Assyrian retaliation. However, in 625 B.C., King Nabopolassar of Chaldea (625-605 B.C.) united Babylonia, ending Assyrian domination. Seeking to permanently destroy Assyria's hold over Mesopotamia, he forged an alliance with Cyaxares of Media and launched a joint campaign against the Assyrians.

With his army, Nabopolassar seized the strategic city of Nippur, a key Assyrian stronghold, cutting off southern Assyria from its power base. In 612 B.C., he and his Median allies took part in the siege and destruction of Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, delivering a final blow to the empire. With the collapse of Assyria, Nabopolassar secured Babylonia's independence and established a new Chaldean dynasty, which would rule into the next century, marking the beginning of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

Scythia & Medea