Iron Age

The Iron Age describes the time period between 1200 and 600 B.C., where the widespread adoption of iron weapons and tools replaced the use of bronze. This transition was disrupted by the collapse of numerous civilisations during the first half of this period, often referred to as the Ancient Dark Age. As Mediterranean societies regained stability between 850 and 650 B.C., a transformed geopolitical landscape emerged, with power shifting westward from the Fertile Crescent to the Aegean.

Greece

Following the collapse of the Bronze Age civilization of Mycenaeans (c.1100 B.C.) and the destruction of palaces and cities, the Hellenic peninsula and islands were ravaged by famine, leading to depopulation. Amongst the political instability, raiding of coastal settlements from the sea became commonplace. Education and writing ceased, and vital trade links were lost, while towns and villages were abandoned. Greece became isolated and backward for three centuries.

For a century prior to the collapse, Arcadian and Achaean peoples had already settled in the central Peloponnese; occupying Mycenae, they used the coast as a base for raiding Crete, Anatolia, and the Levant. Ionians occupied Attica and Euboea, while the Boeotians settled in central Greece. The Thracians seized the north coast of the Aegean. Aeolians spread throughout the islands of the Aegean, notably Lesbos and Chios. Far to the north, the Illyrians occupied the east coast of the Adriatic. The greatest of these people were the Dorians, who were a backward warlike people who had first settled in Epirus. Between 1100-1000 B.C., the Dorians spread outwards to the south, displacing peoples in the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Megara, and the Argolid. The most powerful Dorian tribe would settle in Lacedaemon and Laconia, where they would later become the Spartans. From these places, they built ships and raided Crete, Cos, Rhodes, and Cyprus, destroying as they went and settling the lands with their own numbers. The many tribes, each occupying a small valley, plain, or coastal part of the Greek peninsula, would dispute one another over territory ceaselessly for the next eight hundred years.

The isolation of Greece during these dark centuries saw a return to subsistence farming, with small, scattered communities relying on local resources to survive. The loss of writing meant that oral tradition became the primary means of preserving knowledge, leading to the development of myths and legends that would later define Greek identity. Warfare remained endemic, with constant skirmishes and raids shaping the political landscape. Despite these hardships, cultural continuity persisted, with older religious practices and artistic traditions carried forward in rudimentary forms. By the late 9th century B.C., contact with the eastern Mediterranean was slowly reestablished, leading to renewed trade and the eventual reintroduction of writing, marking the first steps toward the rise of the classical Greek world.

Aristocracy & Colonisation

By 900 B.C., monarchies across Greece had largely given way to aristocracies, as hereditary kings lost power or were reduced to ceremonial figures, with Sparta being the principal exception. The aristocrats, wielding iron weapons and amassing land, solidified their control at the expense of the lower farming classes, leading to renewed economic hardship and food shortages. After 800 B.C., the pressure of overpopulation and social unrest prompted a wave of colonisation, initially encouraged by the ruling elites as a means of diffusing internal discontent. Greek city-states established settlements across the Mediterranean, spreading Hellenic culture far beyond the mainland. Major colonies took root along the Anatolian coast, in Libya, and along the Nile at Naucratis (founded in 640 B.C.). Greek traders and settlers also reached the coasts of Gaul and Iberia, as well as the northern shores of the Black Sea. These outposts reestablished Greece as a central force in Mediterranean trade, linking the region’s economies once more, while at home a vibrant culture emerged, inspired by myths and legends transmitted through oral tradition by bards like Homer (c.750-800 B.C.).

The expansion of trade brought an influx of luxury goods, including oils, wine, ivories, gold, and silver, which in turn spurred advancements in metallurgy, pottery, and other crafts. This technological and artistic growth enabled the Greeks to rival the Phoenicians, whose own trade networks were dominant in the Mediterranean. As commerce flourished, a more educated and cultivated population emerged, driven by an interest in philosophy, literature, and the arts. The increased demand for labour also led to the widespread use of slaves, while the adoption of coinage, first introduced from Lydia, transformed economic practices. Individual city-states soon began minting their own coins, spurring competition and economic expansion.

In the cultural sphere, lyric poetry gained prominence, reflecting a growing appreciation for personal expression and artistic refinement. Greek art, once dominated by geometric patterns, shifted towards an oriental, or animal style, influenced by Eastern motifs and techniques. The early foundations of philosophy emerged with the Milesian School, where thinkers like Thales, Anaximenes, and Anaximander pioneered new ideas in mathematics and logic, laying the groundwork for rational inquiry that would define Greek intellectual tradition in the centuries to come.

The Early Peloponnese

By 800 B.C., Sparta had firmly established its dominance over the central Peloponnesian peninsula and extended its reach by colonizing the fertile lands of Messenia. In its expansion, Sparta waged war against Tegea, the leading city of the Arcadians, a people still fragmented and largely backward compared to the more developed Greek city-states. The Arcadians maintained a religious unity centered around the ancient rites conducted on Mt. Lycaeum, but this did little to unify them politically. Meanwhile, Corinth had emerged as a significant commercial hub, exerting influence over its smaller neighbor Megara until 720 B.C.. Argos, despite claiming hegemony over Greece as the successor of Mycenae, remained a relatively weak power, unable to assert control over its rivals.

In the First Messenian War (736-716 B.C.), Sparta, under the leadership of King Theopompus, launched a campaign to conquer Messenia. Following their victory, the Spartans seized the fertile plains and divided the land among themselves, forcing the native Messenians into servitude as helots, agricultural serfs bound to their Spartan masters. Alongside the Spartiates (full Spartan citizens) and the helots, there existed a third class known as the perioeci, free Laconians who lived in surrounding settlements but lacked full citizenship rights. Despite its growing military dominance, Sparta still maintained a vibrant cultural and intellectual life, particularly excelling in choral poetry, which was esteemed across Greece.

Under King Pheidon of Argos (c.680 B.C.), Argos briefly rose to power, defeating a coalition of Sparta and Tegea at the Battle of Hysiae in 669 B.C.. Pheidon further expanded Argive influence by supporting a rebellion in Aegina, defeating Epidaurus and its ally Athens in the process. His rule marked a significant moment in Greek economic history, as he introduced coinage to Greece, establishing a mint at Aegina. However, after his death, the monarchy’s power was curtailed, and Argos declined as a major force in Greek affairs.

The Second Messenian War saw renewed rebellion from the helots, led by the formidable Aristomenes, ruler of Arcandia, who waged a prolonged resistance against Spartan rule. Retreating to Mt. Eira, Aristomenes and his followers resisted for years before being ultimately subdued. The costly struggle convinced the Spartans that internal unrest posed an existential threat, prompting them to implement the so-called Eunomia, a rigorous reorganization of Spartan society into an even more militarized state, ensuring that future revolts could be suppressed swiftly and decisively.

Rise of Tyranny

By 650 B.C., the dominance of the aristocracies came under increasing strain as landless traders and artisans sought political representation. Unable to ignore the growing demands for change, the ruling elites saw their authority challenged by the rise of tyrants—leaders who, often with the backing of the wealthy, seized power to maintain order and prevent further unrest. In many cases, ambitious individuals exploited the instability to overthrow existing rulers and install themselves as absolute leaders. While these tyrants often came to power through force, they generally found favor with the populace by funding festivals, public works, and infrastructure projects, securing popular support while sidelining the traditional aristocracy.

Despite their often autocratic rule, tyrants inadvertently weakened the nobility’s grip on power. The rigid class and racial distinctions that had defined Greek society began to erode, and many city-states started to transition toward more democratic forms of government. The rule of tyrants paved the way for broader political participation, with reforms that, over time, would allow for the rise of citizen assemblies and representative governance in certain states. Some of the most notable tyrants of this period included Theagenes of Megara (640 B.C.), Thrasybulus of Miletus (620 B.C.), and Cleisthenes of Sicyon (600 B.C.), each of whom played a crucial role in reshaping the political landscape of their respective cities.

Athens

The nobles in Athens gradually curtailed the power of the monarchy, stripping the king of his military authority by transferring it to a polemarch and later assigning his civil responsibilities to an archon. By 683 B.C., the hereditary kingship had been completely abolished and replaced with an annual office, ensuring that no single ruler could maintain long-term control. Governance came to be dominated by a council of nobles known as the Areopagus, which became the supreme authority in the state. Though Athens technically maintained an ecclesia, or assembly of all freemen, it had either fallen into disuse or had been rendered politically powerless.

In 632 B.C., Cylon, a nobleman and relative of the tyrant Theagenes of Megara, attempted to seize control of Athens and establish a tyranny. His coup failed, and many of his followers, after surrendering under promises of safety, were betrayed and slaughtered by Megacles of the Alcmaeonid clan, an act that stained the Alcmaeonid family with religious and political infamy for generations. Seeking to impose order and reduce the cycle of private vengeance, Drako introduced Athens' first written legal code in 621 B.C.. While this system marked an important shift from oral law and blood feuds to a formal judicial structure, its severity made it deeply unpopular among the citizens. The laws were so uncompromisingly harsh that they gave rise to the term "draconian", still used to describe excessively severe legal measures. Despite their cruelty, Drako’s laws laid the groundwork for the later reforms that would shape Athenian democracy.

Phrygia & Lydia

The Phrygians, along with the Mysians, originally occupied a minor vassal state of the Hittites, situated along the Sakarya River in central Anatolia. Their capital, Gordium, was established by King Gordius around 1250 B.C.. According to legend, his son, Midas, was cursed with the ability to turn everything he touched into gold. The Phrygians participated in the Trojan War on the side of Troy, and their connection to the city was cemented when King Priam married the Phrygian princess Hecuba. Following the collapse of the Hittite Empire around 1175 B.C., the Phrygians secured their independence, expanding steadily over the next centuries.

Acting as a barrier between Greece and the East, the kingdom reached its zenith in the 8th century B.C., at which point it dominated most of central and western Anatolia. The Phrygians developed their own writing system, engaged in trade with the Greeks, and were known for their Polished Ware pottery, which became a signature of their culture. Their chief deities included Cybele, the Great Mother who rode a chariot drawn by lions, and Attis, the god who died by castration but was reborn; his eunuch priests, known as Galli, maintained his cult, which would persist long after the kingdom’s fall.

Phrygia ultimately met its end when it was overrun by the Cimmerians, a nomadic people from the north with cultural ties to the Scythians. These invaders first struck the Urartian kingdom in 714 B.C., but after suffering a defeat at the hands of Sargon II of Assyria in 705, they redirected their attacks westward. By 696-695 B.C., Phrygia had fallen completely to the Cimmerian onslaught, bringing its era of power to a close.

Lydia, another former Hittite vassal, achieved its independence in 1192 B.C.. Geographically positioned between Phrygia and the Aegean, Lydia became a crucial bridge between the eastern and western Mediterranean, excelling in commerce and craftsmanship. The Lydians were renowned for their skill as merchants, their expertise in horsemanship, and their innovation in coinage, which replaced the older system of bartering with precious metals. Their contributions extended into the arts, particularly in music and dance, and their cultural legacy includes Aesop, the famed storyteller. They worshipped Santas and Bacchus, gods associated with revelry and fertility. Their capital was Sardis, a city that would remain a major center of trade and administration for centuries.

Lydia was ruled by 22 successive generations of the Heraclid Dynasty, culminating in the reign of Candaules, who was assassinated in 687 B.C.. His killer and former confidant, Gyges, took the throne and founded the Myrmnadae Dynasty. Seeking to secure Lydia’s position, Gyges forged an alliance with the Assyrians, crushed the Cimmerians in 685 B.C., and expanded Lydian territory. However, his support for Psamtik, the Egyptian ruler who expelled the Assyrians from Egypt, provoked a fresh Cimmerian invasion. Gyges fell in battle in 652 B.C., and Sardis was razed soon afterward.

His son, Ardys, inherited both the throne and the ongoing war against the Cimmerians, who had now occupied eastern Lydia and the former lands of Phrygia. Over the next 33 years, the conflict raged on. The tide finally turned in the 620s B.C., when the Assyrians inflicted a decisive defeat on the Cimmerians, allowing Ardys to annihilate them in 619 B.C.. After this, the Cimmerians vanished from history. Between 619 and his death in 603 B.C., Ardys continued Lydia’s expansion, occupying Phrygia and pressing forward with the conquest of Greek coastal cities, a campaign first undertaken by Gyges.

Rome

The early Italian peoples, known as the Terramare, migrated into the Italian Peninsula from the Rhone and upper Danube valleys, bringing with them agricultural techniques and settlement patterns that shaped the region’s early development. As they expanded, they encountered the maritime cultures of the Aegean world, which influenced their way of life. Among these early Italian tribes were the Samnites, Sabines, and Latins, each of whom would play a critical role in the region’s future. A more advanced group, the Umbrians and Oscans, arrived later from the middle Danube basin, introducing ironworking to the peninsula, which would revolutionize warfare, agriculture, and craftsmanship.

Etruscans

The first clear evidence of Etruscan culture emerges around 900 B.C., marking the beginning of one of Italy’s most influential civilizations. Deeply influenced by Greek culture, the Etruscan civilization reached its height around 750 B.C., during the early foundational period of Rome. Their dominance extended across Etruria, the Po Valley, and Campania, though they were never unified under a single ruler. Instead, their power was distributed among a network of independent city-states, governed by prominent aristocratic families who held authority in their respective regions.

Among their many contributions, the Etruscans developed a writing system derived from the Greek alphabet, mastered ironworking, and established a political structure that later influenced Roman governance. Their legacy can still be seen in the enduring municipal character of Italian history—just as modern Italian peasants often identify more with their local city than with the broader nation, so too did the Etruscans and later Romans structure their society around city-states and local governance.

As time passed, Etruscan power waned, and much of their civilization faded, leaving behind little evidence that could withstand the waves of dramatic violence and upheaval that would engulf the Italian Peninsula for the next two thousand years. However, their influence endured, forming the cultural and political foundation upon which Rome would rise.

Founding of Rome

Destined to dominate the ancient Mediterranean world, Rome showed little indication of future greatness in its earliest days. Though the Italian Peninsula had been inhabited since prehistoric times, the specific site where Rome would rise was uninhabited before the 1st millennium B.C.. Even after its first settlement, the city remained nothing more than a small hamlet, precariously situated at a ford on the Tiber River. According to tradition, Romulus, the legendary son of a princess of Alba Longa, was its founder. The rulers of Alba Longa were, in turn, said to be descended from Aeneas, a fugitive of the Trojan War.

Throughout the 8th century B.C., small hilltop communities on the Palatine, Esquiline, Quirinal, and Capitoline hills gradually coalesced into a single city, Rome, with a shared meeting place in the low-lying Forum. These early settlers belonged to diverse ethnic backgrounds, primarily Latin, but also Sabine, Etruscan, and pre-Italic peoples. Rome's initial significance was likely not economic but military, serving as a Latin outpost positioned against the expanding Etruscans to the north.

The city’s first king, Romulus (753-715 B.C.), established a monarchy that, following his reign, became elective rather than hereditary. The king's power was constrained by the Senate, an advisory council of 100 elders (known as patres), and the comitia curiata, an assembly of clans (curiae) that formally granted the newly elected king his authority. Roman society was divided into two classes: patricians, who alone could serve in the Senate, and plebeians, who lacked direct political power. The patricians were likely the wealthiest landowners, who, by organizing themselves into curiae, elevated themselves above other citizens and consolidated their control over governance.

Numa Pompilius (715-673 B.C.), a Sabine, succeeded Romulus and shaped Rome’s religious and political institutions. He is credited with establishing the Roman calendar, the Vestal Virgins, and the cults of Mars, Jupiter, and Romulus, as well as creating the office of Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Rome. His successor, Tullius Hostilius (673-641 B.C.), pursued military expansion, defeating Alba Longa and reducing it to a vassal state. Under Ancus Marcius (641-616 B.C.), Rome continued its campaigns against the Latins, forcibly resettling defeated peoples in newly conquered lands surrounding the Aventine Hill, further solidifying its control over central Italy.

Egypt

Following the collapse of Dynasty XX, the rising power of the high priests of Amon stripped authority from the descendants of Ramses II, marking the beginning of Dynasty XXI amid the broader collapse of Egypt’s imperial influence. The priest-king Hrihor (1080-1074 B.C.) established his capital at Thebes, where he struggled to assert control over the nobles led by Smedes, who ruled from the Delta. This power struggle marked the start of the Third Intermediate Period, a time of decline and political fragmentation that paralleled the collapse of other great civilizations in the Near East.

Egypt descended into further disarray until the Libyan chief Sheshonk launched a decisive campaign in 945 B.C., seizing control and founding Dynasty XXII. His rule brought a century of relative stability, though Egypt remained weakened and divided. Establishing his capital at Bubastis, Sheshonk reasserted Egyptian authority and even campaigned into the Levant, briefly restoring Egypt’s influence abroad. However, after the reign of Osorkon II (837 B.C.), the kingdom fractured once more. The priestly families of Amon established a separate Nubian kingdom based in Napata, creating Dynasty XXIII. Egypt fell into a prolonged state of anarchy and civil war, lasting until 718 B.C., when the Nubian ruler Kashta marched north, crushing the resistance of multiple native Egyptian kings and asserting his dominance over Upper Egypt.

By 712 B.C., Kashta’s successor, Shabaka, completed the Nubian conquest of Egypt, establishing Dynasty XXV. The Kushite pharaohs sought to restore Egypt’s former glory, undertaking vast construction and restoration projects at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal. However, Egypt’s influence had already diminished significantly, and an even greater threat loomed in the Assyrian Empire to the east. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon struck Egypt in a massive invasion between 671-663 B.C., defeating Pharaoh Taharqa, capturing Memphis, and pushing south as far as Thebes. Taharqa perished during the campaign, while his successor Tantamani retreated to Nubia. The sack of Thebes and Memphis in 664 by the Assyrians marked one of the most devastating blows to Egyptian power in its long history.

In 663 B.C., Tantamani attempted a final reconquest of Lower Egypt, launching a large-scale invasion. However, the campaign faltered, forcing him to withdraw permanently to Nubia, where the Kushite dynasty continued to rule independently. In the power vacuum left behind, Psammeticus of Sais (663-609 B.C.), a governor originally appointed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, emerged as Egypt’s new leader. In 652, Psammeticus successfully threw off Assyrian rule, unifying the country and establishing Dynasty XXVI, ushering in what became known as the Saitic Revival, a last flourishing of Egyptian culture and military power before the coming of the Persians.

Phoenicia

Following the collapse of societies surrounding the eastern Mediterranean, there arose various great cities of Phoenicia, a disunited collective culture arising from traders, expert seafarers and colonist explorers. An expansive sea trade network had existed for more than a millennium, becoming the dominant commercial power in antiquity. Tyre, Sidon, Beirut and Byblos flourished as independent kingdoms for centuries after the collapse of Egyptian power along the Levant coast after 1225 B.C. Ugarit was destroyed in 1200 from the sea; Beirut fell to the Assyrians (c.1100 B.C.).

King Abibaal of Tyre (969-936) established the kingdom, which became a hegemony over other Phoenician trade cities in the Mediterranean. His son, Hiram I (936-918 B.C.), son of Abibaal, established the Hegemony of Tyre, subjugating the colony of Utica after it had rebelled. King Hiram of Tyre employed his craftsmen to provide King Solomon with a fleet for his operations on the Red Sea. Hiram was succeeded by his son Beleazarus (920-918) and his grandson Abstartus (918-909).

Abstartus was assassinated by the first of four brothers, the sons of Abstartus' nurse, who reigned in succession between 909-887 B.C.. These were Astartus, Deleastartus, Astarymus and Phelles. These were followed by Ittobaal of Tyre (887-856 B.C.), formerly a priest of Baal, established a new dynasty that would rule the Phoenician Kingdom independently for a century. Lands and privileges were lost to the Assyrians, as Tyre was forced to pay heavy tributes to survive. As a means of building solidarity against the Assyrians, Ittobaal's daughter Jezebel would marry Ahab and bring the religion of Baal to Isreal. Her brother Balbazer would become king (846-841) would pay tribute the Assyrians. He would be succeeded by Mattan I (840-832).

The last king of Tyre, Pygmalion (820-774 B.C.), shifted the focus of Phoenician trading from Mesopotamia and the Levant towards Cyprus, Greece and Sardinia, as these regions gained stability. Pygmalion's sister, Dido, fled Tyre in 925 to escape her brother's dominance, eventually founding the city of Carthage in 814 B.C.. Thereafter, Tyre fell into a period of disorder, where the city (and other Phoenician trade cities) lacked a king, until Ittobaal II (750-739).

Assyrian Dominance

From the time of Pygmalion, the Assyrians would receive tribute from Phoenician cities without subjecting them. These cities paid an especially heavy levy to Tiglath Pileser after 738 B.C.. Hiram II (739-730 B.C.) and Mattan II (730-729 B.C.) would see the subjugation of the hinterland. During that period, Elulaios of Tyre (729-694 B.C.) would reconquer Cyprus after it had been taken from Sargon II; Elulaios would flee to Cyprus during the campaigns of Sennacherib. Phoenicia and Cyprus would then be subjected by Essarhaddon and remain under Assyrian rulership. Essarhaddon destroyed Sidon in 675 B.C.. Tyre survived, though only in name, as it paid tribute to Ashurbanipal.

Following the collapse of Assyria in 612 B.C., the cities of Phoenicia would experience a brief period of independence.

Israel & Judah

In the 11th century B.C., the ten tribes of Israel were living in Palestine among the Canaanites, without unity — though they continued to regard themselves as Israelites. Three other tribes, Simeon, Levi and Judah, were living in the extreme south of Palestine. Jabin, the king of Canaan, oppressed the ten tribes, six of whom answered the summons of the prophet Deborah (1107 B.C.) and fought victoriously against the Canaanites in the Valley of Jezreel. The Judges, victorious tribal leaders, ruled over the tribes. Gideon was followed by seventy sons who ruled jointly; Ehud killed Eglon, King of Moab; Jephtah, a Gileadite, defeated the Ammorites; but these Judges founded no dynasty. The tribe of Benjamin was nearly destroyed in a civil war (1170 B.C.). Samson of Dan, a heroic figure of legend, defined the beginning of the conflict with the Philistines in the 1140s B.C., the result of which would be the migration of the tribe of Dan to the extreme north of Palestine.

First Kings

Pressure from Philistine domination induced the Israelites to name a king, Saul (1028-1013 B.C.), after his spectacular deliverance of Jabesh in Gilead. Saul defeated the Philistines at Michmash, but took his own life after his defeat at the Battle of Gilboa. Following his death, the kingship split in twain, with Ishbaal the son of Saul ruling in Mahanaim, east of the Jordan, and David ruling as King of Judah (1013-973). David united the two kingdoms in 1006; he conquered Jerusalem and made it his capital, broke the power of the Philistines and fought successfully against the Ammonites and Edomites. However, the jealousy between Judah and Israel provoked the rebellions of Absalom (son of David) and of Queen Sheba (Bathsheba).

King Solomon (973-933 B.C.), son of Sheba, in alliance with the Pharoah of Egypt (Dynasty XXI) and with Hiram, King of Tyre, undertook far-reaching trading operations by land and sea. He introduced taxation and forced labour, built a great temple, the royal palace and the city wall of Jerusalem, along with public buildings elsewhere. The magnificence of his reign became proverbial. Solomon's son, Rehoboam, refused the demand of the northern tribes for relief from taxation and they seceded, making Jeroboam their king. Israel and Judah would remain split thereafter.

Kingdom of Israel

Jeroboam I (933-901 B.C.) chose Shechem as his capital. His son Nadab (912-911) was slain by Baasha (911-888), who made himself King of Israel and resided at Tirzah. Baasha had been a captain in Nadab's army; he fought against Judah and endeavoured to strangle Judah's trade by fortifying Ramah, a city north of Jerusalem. His son Elam (888-887) was murdered by his chariot commander Zimri, whose reign lasted only one year (887).

The troops abandoned Zimri and named Omri King (887-875 B.C.). He built a new capital, Samaria, inaugurating a period of expansion and power of the northern kingdom. He placed northern Moab under tribute, but failed to subdue the Arameans of Damascus. His son, Ahab, allowed his wife Jezebel to establish the religion of Baal in Samaria, provoking a reaction from the prophets Elijah and Elisha. As king, Ahab failed against Mesha, King of Moab, but imposed peace terms on Ben-Hadad II of Damascus and allied with him at Qarqar (854) against Shalmaneser III of Assyria. His sons Azahiah of Israel (853) and Joram (852) would be the last kings of Omri's dynasty.

Jehu (843-816 B.C.), son of Jehoshaphat of Judaea, exterminated the last vestiges of Omni's line, as well as those of Judah that were within his reach. For a time, until 837, Jehu ruled both Israel and Judaea. He paid tribute to the Assyrians and cleansed Israel of the worship of Baal, putting its worshippers to death. In revenge, Hazael of Damascus raided his Transjordanian provinces. Succeeded by his son Johoahaz (816-800) and grandson Joash (800-785), Israel was likewise helpless against Damascus. However, Jeroboam II (785-744), the son of Joash, reconquered the lost provinces while Damascus was under assault by Assyria (773). Jeroboam rules over the kingdom at the height of its power and prosperity, though the prophets Amos and Hosea foresaw the impending rule of Israel. The last king of the dynasty of Jehu, Zechariah, would be assassinated by Shallum, a captain from his own army.

While Shallum would become king, he would reign for one month before being put to death by another captain of Zechariah's army, Menahem (744-738 B.C.). During his reign, and that of his son Pekahiah (738-735), Israel would be forced to pay tribute to Assyria, even hopelessly allying themselves with Damascus as the kingdom was devastated. Pekah (735-732), a usurper who was captain of Pekahiah's army, was overthrown by Hoshea (732-722), the last king of Israel. Hoshea refused to pay tribute to the Assyrians, holding out against them as well as he could. After a siege of three years (725-722), the last province, Samaria, fell and Israel ceased to exist.

Kingdom of Judah

Following the succession of northern Israel, Reheboam (933-917 B.C.) would fight against the Israel with small success. In the 5th year of his reign, the Libyan Sheshonk of Egypt would bring a huge army and take many cities in the west. His son Abijah (917-915) and grandson Asa (915-875) would continue the struggle against Israel. Asa turned back the army of Zerah the Kushite in the Valley of Zephathah (905) and imposed strict national observance to the Laws of Moses, so that he was considered a righteous man at his death.

His son, Jehoshaphat (875-851 B.C.) made peace with Ahab of Israel and destroyed a confederacy of the Moabites, preserving Judaea. He was succeeded by Jehoram of Judaea (851-844), son of Jehoshaphat and Athaliah, daughter of Jezebel. Jehoram failed to put down the rebellion of the Edomites and was forced to acknowledge their independence. Jehoram was succeeded by Ahaziah of Judah (844); but Ahaziah was killed by his brother Jehu, a daughter of Jezebel. Jehu held control in Judaea and Israel until he was driven out by a palace revolution.

Jehoash (837-798 B.C.) he abandoned Judaism and turned instead to idols. For this, he was rebuked by the prophet Zechariah, which ended in Jehoash ordering the execution of Zechariah by stoning. When Damascus marched on Jerusalem, Jehoash was said to have emptied the royal treasuries to pay off King Hazael and end the attack; but the Syrians took the city, executed the leaders of the people and marched away with the spoils. Jehoash would be assassinated by his own servants.

Amaziah (798-780 B.C.) was the son of Jehoash. In his fifth year he named his son Uzziah as his co-ruler. Amaziah revenged his father and made an attempt to reconquer Edom; after an initial success, his pride inflated, he rushed into a disastrous battle with Joash of Israel at Beth-shemesh. The humiliating defeat ended in his capture, the destruction of 400 cubits of the wall of Jerusalem and the looting of the city, temple and palace. Anger for bringing such disasters upon the kingdom resulted in a conspiracy that ended in Amaziah's assassination. Uzziah would rule from 780-740 B.C., enjoying a prosperous reign owing to Israel's revival under Jeroboam II.

Uzziah's son Jotham (740-735 B.C.) would fight a war against the kings Pekah of Israel and Rezin of Damascus. His son Ahaz (735-720), contrary to the advice of the prophet Isaiah, turned to the Assyrian Tiglath-pileser III for aid. This would contribute to the destruction of Israel as a kingdom. Ahaz's son Hezekiah (720-692) would defy the Assyrian Sennacherib, but after a disastrous war and the siege of Jerusalem in 701, Hezekiah came to terms. His son Manasseh (692-630) would remain a faithful vassal of Assyria throughout his reign, even to the point of encouraging the people to worship Assyrian gods. Amon (639 B.C.), the son of Manasseh, would fully indulge in idolatrous practices, leading to his assassination.

Reforming the Kingdom of Judah, Amon's son Josiah (638-609 B.C.) would reform the Jewish worship, centralizing it in the temple at Jerusalem. He was able to do this largely due to the rapid decline of Assyrian power during his reign, leading to the destruction of Ninevah in 612 B.C.

Syria

After the destruction of the Hittite capital of Hattusa in 1180 B.C., Syria saw a dispersal of settlements and ruralisation, with the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages and farmsteads. Some former Hittite principalities continued to preserve their identity in the midst of the flood of Aramaic migrations, bringing Arameans, Amorites, Moabites, Edomites, Ammonites and Israelites to the Levant. Chief among these principalities was Carchemish, a lost city in the vicinity of present-day Jarabulus.

Carchemish

The city became an important trading center. Kuzi-Tesup I, son of the last Hittite king Talmi-Teshub, founded a dynasty that ruled over a small kingdom surrounding the West Bend of the Euphrates. The city held sway over the northern Fertile Crescent from 1175-975 B.C., when it began to lose control over its farther possessions. Steadily, by the 9th century, Carchemish was reduced to little more than a city state (849), when it was forced to pay tribute to the kings of Syria. It would be conquered by Sargon II in 717 B.C., during the reign of the last Carchemish king, Pisiri. The city would be turned into an important Assyrian capital.

Aramean Kingdoms

The emergence of Aramean kingdoms in Syria and upper Mesopotamia arose after 1000 B.C.. East of the Euphrates, these included Beth-Eden, with Til Barsip as its capital; the city-state of Gozan; and Hadippe with its capital Suru, among others. These eastern lands would be forced to pay tribute to the Assyrians in the early 9th century B.C.. Til Barsip would be devastated by the Assyrian Shalmaneser III (857).

West of the Euphrates, the small kingdoms of Gargum (capital, Marash), Samal, Hattin, Hamath, Zobah and Aram-Damascus. Of these, the most important was Aram-Damascus; the remainder would exist as vassal states until they, too, were conquered by Sargon II between 720 and 719 B.C..

Damascus

Settled first under the Hittites, the region was occupied by the Arameans (1000-965 B.C.), discovering the agricultural potential of what was a sparsely populated area. A dynasty was founded in 970 by Rezon, whose father Eliada had been a general under Hadadezer, King of Zobah. The new state of Damascus would expand southward, preventing the northward spread of the Kingdom of Israel. The two kingdoms would clash repeatedly for more than a century. King Ahab of Israel would ally with Ben-Hadad II of Damascus against the Assyrians at the battle of Qarqar (854). Religiously, Damascus worshipped Baal; Israel's repudiation of the god would remain a source of contention between the two states.

However, the growing presence of Assyria would prevent a resolution being reached between the two states. In 805 B.C., the Assyrians would besiege Damascus during the reign of Ben-Hadad III. Further in-fighting between the Aramean states, such as the failed coalition led by Damascus against Zakir of Hamath, would weaken the divided states of Syria. King Rezin of Damascus would be executed by Tiglath-pileser III in 732 B.C.. Thereafter, Damascus would lose all importance and remain subject to the Kings of Assyria until 625, and thereafter Babylonia.

Urartu

Urartu was a kingdom located in the large basin surrounding Lake Van, where the headwaters of the Araxes, Tigris and Arzanias begin. The kingdom includes the principalities of Kurshi, Suhni, Qaria and Gilzan. In population, the people were Hurrian, the same who descended into the upper Eurphates in the 17th century B.C. to found the Mitanni Kingdom. The descendents who remained behind in Urartu would learn to found iron and build with stone. The great temple of Haldi, located in the lost city of Musasir somewhere between Lake Urmia and Lake Van, was dedicated to the god Haldi and his consort. Tesheba, the god of storms, and Ardini, goddess of the sun, were part of the Urartan pantheon.

The numerous Hurrian principalities raided the Assyrians from the 13th century B.C. onwards. In the years 1113-1110 B.C., these Hurrian groups were united under a single king against the Assyrian Tiglath-pileser I. Further wars would be waged against Assyrian in 1070 B.C.; Adad-nirari II in 900; Tukulti II in 890; and with Ashurnasirpal II throughout his reign. These wars resulted in little gain on either side, but each viewed the other as a blood enemy.

Dynastic Period

During the reign of Arame (860-843 B.C.), the kingdom was threatened by the Assyrian Shalmaneser III, who defeated the Urartans and seized the capital Arzashkun (844). Arame was deposed by Lutipri (844-832), who paid tribute to the Assyrians. Lutipri was murdered by his son Sardur I (832-820), who re-established his capital at Tushpa and fortified it. Calling himself the King of the Four Quarters, he renewed raiding on Assyria during the kingship of the Assyrian Shamshi-Adad V.

Ishpuini (820-800 B.C.), son of Sardur I, reconquered Musasir, restored the temple and appointed his son Sardur the viceroy there. Following an attack by Shamshi-Adad V, this Sardur was killed and the kingdom fell to his younger brother Menua (800-785), who enlarged the kingdom considerably, restoring some lands the Assyrians had conquered to the kingdom and increasing the Urartu's power considerably in the time of Semiramis. Thereafter, Urartu would remain a serious threat on the flank of Assyria.

Argishtish (785-760 B.C.), son of Menua, annexed the territory along the Araxes and extended the boundaries of Urartu to the shores of Lake Erivan. He defeated Shalmaneser IV, conquered the lands of the Diauehi and the Ararat, making Urartu the most powerful state in Asia Minor. He built two great fortresses to maintain authority over these conquests. His son, Sardur II (760-733) was the last great king of Urartu, maintaining the kingdom at the height of its power. He fought Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria to a standstill; but this broke the expansion of Urartu.

Collapse

Between 733-612 B.C., the kings of Urartu steadily lost the territory gained by their forefathers; the primary reason was the Cimmerians, who migrated from the north beginning after 715 B.C.. This, coupled with the raid of Sargon II of Assyria, weakened the kingdom. By the reign of Sardur III (650-625), Urartu had lost its eastern lands. Phrygia had fallen under the control of the Cimmerians, who occupied that country and were under continuous assault from Lydia after the 640s B.C.. However, during the reign of the last king, Rusas III (625-612), Urartu was invaded by Scythians and their vassals, the Medes. This massive raid would also lead to the destruction of Ninevah (612 B.C.) and the fall of the Assyrian Empire.

Assyria

Assyria lay in the highlands north of Babylon, along the upper Tigris River and the waters of the Great and Little Zab Rivers. It's culture was deeply indebted to the Babylonian, to the Hittite and to the Hurrian. Except for the Assyrian roayl annals, which are historical sources of the greatest value and are inspired by Hittite models, for the most part Assyrian literature consisted of new editions of the ancient Babylonian works. In sculpture (particularly in the bas-reliefs depicting realistically religious scenes, hunts and military operations) and in architecture (influenced by the Hittite styles) the Assyrians surpassed the Babylonians, as also in the fields in which they made their greatest contribution: military equipment and imperial administration. In religion the Assyrians worshipped their national god, Ashur, along with Ishtar of Nineveh.

Consolidation

By 1232 B.C., Assyria had become a strong kingdom, occupying what remained of the old Mitanni Kingdom. The fall of the Hittites hurt their trade, in particular diminishing their source of wrought iron. Additionally, Kassite power (1220-1116 B.C.) threatened their southern frontier. Assyria recovered slowly, learning to work iron themselves. Surrounded by the Urartu to the north (Lake Van), Elamites to the east and the Kassites to the south, the Assyrians fought their enemies in order to secure their borders. After the fall of the Kassites, the native Babylonians in the south established the Middle Babylonian kingdom under Nebuchadnezzer I (1146-1123). After an attempt by the Babylonians to engage Assyria (1125 B.C.), king Assurresh I of Assyria (1133-1116) turned him back.

The great king Tiglath-pileser I (1116-1093 B.C.), son of Assurresh, fought successful campaigns against Mushku and Mulatia, overrunning the upper Euphrates and penetrating into the northern mountains south of Van; razed the Aramaeans east of the Euphrates; and secured the trade route to the Mediterranean, granting him access to Byblos and Sidon. This control over trade, held jointly with Carchemish, produced much wealth, which Tiglath-pileser used to restore the temples of Ashur and Hadad at the Assyrian capital of Assur.

Hard pressed between 1093 and 911 B.C. by the Aramaean kingdoms to the west and its other enemies, Assyria's survival was put to the test. The kingdom remained a well-defended state, however, whose warriors were the best in the world, with a stable monarchy. In many ways, Assyria was more secure than its potential rivals; this military and political foundation would help establish the later empire when it rose.

Expansion

The reduction of pressure by its neighbours encouraged Assyria to strike outwards, using the iron weapons and advanced military tactics that had been designed to withstand attacks for so long. Adad-ninari II (911-891 B.C.) regained former Assyrian territory that had been been seized by the Aramaeans (910) at the junction of the Khabur and Euphrates. After subduing Tabal and Kammunu (former Hittite provinces) to the north, Adad-ninari turned and twice attacked King Shamash of Babylonia (908 and 902 B.C.), annexing a large area of land north of the Diyala River and the towns of Hit and Zanqu. Campaigning in the west, he subjugated the Aramean cities of Kadmuh and Nisbin. Along with vast amounts of treasure acquired, he restored Phoenician trade routes to Assyria. His son Tukulti II (891-893 B.C.) continued his father's conquests, reducing the Hurrians to the northeast and the Urartians of Van.

Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 B.C.), son of Tukulti, embarked on a vast program of expansion. He was ruthless in war. An army using heavy & light cavalry and chariots was organized, including foreigners pressed into service. Advanced military equipment, such as battering-rams and siege engines, greatly increased the Assyrians' power. Ashurnasirpal campaigned successfully in the northeast and in Phyrgia. He reached the Mediterranean and compelled the Phoenician cities (siege of Tyre) to pay him tribute. Aram and the land between the Khabur and Euphrates rivers were conquered. Under him, the provincial administration was improved and the palace at Calah was adorned with remarkable bas-reliefs. With his death, the First Empire had been firmly established.

Shalmaneser III (859-824 B.C.), son of Ashurnasirpal II, fought against the kingdom of Urartu and against Ben-Hadad of Damascus and his allies. He campaigned against Ahab of Israel, fighting the battle of Qarqar against eleven kings, at which no clear victory was achieved by either side. He reduced Carchemish (849), forcing the city to pay tribute. He sacked Babylon in 843 B.C.. Defeating Hazael of Damacus (841), he spared the city rather than plunder it. Shalmaneser forced Tyre and Sidon to pay tribute, and exacted tribute from King Jehu of Israel also. This gave control of the Mediterranean trade to the Assyrians, making the empire very wealthy.

The Middle Period

Little further expansion took place under Shamshi-Adad V (824-810 B.C.) and his successor, the regent queen Semiramis. She reigned as queen regent for 42 years, during which time monuments were built throughout Assyria, a history of Assyria was written and many rituals of the Assyrian religion were established. Semiramis introduced the practice of castrating male youths, that she would be surrounded by eunuch servants and guards. Her son, Adad-nirari III, reigned as her puppet until 782 B.C. Semiramis continued to dominate the throne through the reigns of her grandson Shalmaneser IV (782-773) and his brother Ashur-dan III (773-755), until her death in 768. During the ceremony of her great funeral, Semiramis is said to have been resurrected as a demi-god; thereafter shrines appeared in her name throughout the empire, though the location of these shrines is today unknown.

Amidst plagues, rebellions and the expansion of Urartu, the empire would remain in disarray after Semiramis' death until Tiglath-pileser III (745-727 B.C.) rebuilt the empire and restored the army. Tiglath broke the expansion of Urartu, conquered Arpad and forced tribute from the Israelites and the Syrians. In 734 B.C., following a treaty with Ahaz of Judaea, he forced the submission of King Pekah of Israel and waged a campaign against Syria that would end in the occupation of that kingdom and the execution of King Rezin of Damascus, the last in his line. He deported the Reubenites, Gadites and people of Manasseh, exiling them to the lands of Halah, Habor and Hara. Finally, in 729 B.C., his army achieved the conquest of Babylon, whereupon Tiglath became King of Babylon as well as King of Assyria.

Tiglath-pileser's son, Shalmaneser V (727-722 B.C.), following a hopeless campaign against Sumeria, was succeeded to the throne by Sargon II (722-705 B.C.), the unacknowledged son of Tiglath. Sargon killed his half-brother Shalmaneser and ended the campaign in Samaria, destroying the Kingdom of Isreal. Soon after (720), Babylonia rose up in revolt against him, calling forward the Elamites as allies. The Elamites met Sargon's army on the Plains of Der, where Sargon was defeated, allowing King Marduk of Babylon to secure control of southern Mesopotamia.

Thereafter, Sargon destroyed Carchemish (717 B.C.) and raided into Urartu (717-714). A full-scale assault was attempted in 715 by the Urartans; this was turned back and again the two empires proved unable to defeat the other. It was after this war that incursions by the Cimmerians would lead to the collapse of both empires. Turning south again, Sargon waged a second war with Babylon (710-709 B.C.), taking Babylon and capturing a fleeing King Marduk, who sought asylum in Elam and did not receive it. Sargon would spare Marduk's life in exchange for yielding Mesopotamia. Sargon built a new capital, Dur Sharrukinh (now lost) near Nineveh.

Collapse of Assyria

Though Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.), son of Sargon II, ruled at the height of Assyria, the empire was too large to hold. Sennacherib faced insurrections in numerous provinces and especially in Babylonia, fomented by Egypt. Once again, Marduk claimed the Babylonia as his own; he held the city for 9 months (703-702) before fleeing before Sennacherib's Assyrians. Having settled with Babylonia, Sennacherib marched into the Levant (701) and reduced Judaea, forcing Hezekian of that kingdom to become a client of Assyria. He then seized the Phoenician trade cities of Sidon and Ashkalon (assuming their wealth), then defeated the Egyptians at Eltekeh. Therafter he returned to Babylon, where his hunt for Marduk led to an invasion of Elam, where the former Babylonian king was dwelling in exile. After a difficult campaign, the Elamites were defeated and Sennacherib destroyed Babylon (689). He lived the rest of his reign in relative peace.

His son Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.) had difficulty holding back the hordes of Cimmerians in the north. Rebuilding Babylon, Esarhaddon directed a campaign against Phoenician Tyre and Sidon (676) and then succeeded in entered Egypt in 671. Two campaigns against the Egyptians by Esarhaddon secured the eastern plain. Following his death (668), his son Ashurbanipal (668-625 B.C.) led two more campaigns into Egypt, sacking Thebes and Memphis (664) and securing Upper Egypt also.

This latter conquest soon faded; Ashurbanipal could not prevent Psammeticus of Sais from becoming master of Egypt. By 663 B.C., the Assyrian powers had withdrawn entirely from the Nile valley. Palestine and Syria after that would remain submissive, but Ashurbanipal's half brother Shamash-shumukin, appointed viceroy of Babylonia, rebelled; the resulting bloody civil war (652-648) severely weakened many of the empire's fortifications. After this, Ashurbanipal carried on campaigns against a newly established Babylonian kingdom (the Chaldaeans), the Arabs south of the Euphrates Valley and Elam. The Elamites were completely devastated over two campaigns in 646 and 640 B.C.. During his lifetime, Ashurbanipal was a patron of the arts and succeeded in assembling a great library at Ninevah.

The period between 625-605 B.C. saw a rapid disintigration of the Assyrian Empire. The Medians and Scythians, sweeping down from the north after the destruction of Urartu, devastated the northern provinces between 614-613 B.C.. Cyaxares, King of Media, made a pact with Nabopolassar, King of the Chaldaeans, and together they destroyed the city of Nineveh in 612 B.C. For a few years, an Assyrian general, Ashur-uballit, attempted to save a remnant of the empire with Harran as its capital, but he failed dismally (605) and the Assyrian Empire and nation ceased to exist.

Babylon

With the waning of the Kassites, Nebuchadnezzar I (1146-1123 B.C.) defeated the Elamites and consolidated the Middle Babylonian kingdom. He broke the back of the Kassite nobility, conquered the Amorites and after a failed campaign against the Assyrians, made peace with them. He would be succeeded first by his son Enlilnadin (1103-1100 B.C.), then by his brother Marduknadin (1099-1082 B.C.), who with other members of the court would put Enlilnadin to the sword so as to end the latter's campaign against Assyria. Marduknadin would himself be assassinated by Mardukshapik (1082-1069 B.C.), his brother.

During this period of chaos, amidst a succession of unimportant kings, the Aramaeans would raid into Babylonia, while fractious wars with Assyria would continue. The Kassites would reassert themselves (100-984); Babylonia would be plundered by the Aramaeans (977) and the kingdom would be restored under Nabumukin (977-943 B.C.). King Shamash of Babylonia (917-900 B.C.) would be defeated by Adad-Ninari II in 902 B.C., but though territory was lost, would remain in control of the kingdom. Between 900 and 850 B.C., Mesopotamia would be overrun by nomads, the Chaldaeans, who would settle in the marshes of the southeast, along the Persian Gulf.

The wars with Assyria were disastrous for Babylonia. Shalmaneser III of Assyria sacked Babylon (843 B.C.), killing king Nabuapla. Later kings were reduced to vassalage; Adad-ninari III of Assyria ruled Babylon as a viceroy under Semiramis (808-800 B.C.). Later kings would become vassals until Babylon was finally subjugated by Tiglath-pileser III in 729.

Chaldaean Babylon

After a series of unsuccessful rebellions against the Assyria, though these would sometimes grant momentary periods of self-rule for Babylonia, King Nabopolassar of Chaldaea (625-605 B.C.) united Babylonia. Forming an alliance with Cyaxares of Medea, he confronted the Assyrians, seized the city of Nippur and took part in the destruction of Nineveh in 612 B.C. Assyria collapsed and Nabopolassar established a dynasty that would last into the next century.

Scythia & Medea

See Also,
Ancient History
History
History (sage study)