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| − | == Egypt ==
| + | '''The Bronze Age''' describes a technological stage where bronze replaces flint and stone as the chief material for weapons and tools. However, the discovery that copper could be hardened through the addition of tin, to form a bronze alloy, was secondary to the more fundamental one that moldable metal could be produced from copper ore. Whether standard bronze, having about one part of tin to nine of copper, was used in any particular region depended mainly on the availability of tin. It was possible, for instance, that a complex civilisation could flourish in Egypt despite a continued reliance on copper. |
| − | [[File:Early Egypt.jpg|right|350px|thumb|Ancient Egypt at its Height]]
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| − | In ancient times Egypt consisted of two parts: the Nile Valley north of the First Cataract, a narrow deep trench only a few miles wide and 600 miles long; and the Nile Delta, an inverted triangle 150 miles across. The combined inhabited area of the valley and the delta was about 10,000 square miles.
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| − | As the ancient writer Diodorus pointed out, Egypt was "fortified by nature," with the cataracts in the south, the desert on the east and west, and the sea to the north — but it was also isolated by these natural barriers, with the result that there developed in Egypt a civilisation that was quite different from the other cultures of the Near East. Moreover, dominating almost every phase of Egyptian culture was the Nile River, the most striking topographic feature of the country, which provided Egypt with its fertility and its principal means of communication.
| + | The period reflects the birth of "civilisation," in which the world saw [[City State|city states]] arise in the most fertile areas. This development led to the rise of territorial states and empires. Trade increasingly became a source of power, as states with access to important resources or controlling important trade routes rose to dominance. |
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| − | The Nile Valley was not occupied by man until after the last Ice Age, when the Sahara Desert began to increase in size and drove the men and animals from northern Africa toward the Mediterranean coast or eastward to the banks of the Nile. The men of the Paleolithic Age lived on the high cliffs above the valley, but their successors, the agriculturalists of the Neolithic Age descended to the valley floor to plant their crops.
| + | == Palestine == |
| | + | At the beginning of the 3rd millenium <small>B.C.</small> the kings of the early dynasties of Egypt were sending expeditions northward to conquer the Asiatic coastland in order to control its commerce and obtain timber, metals, and other raw materials. It was in this area that the goods of Egypt and Babylonia were exchanged. By the middle of the 2nd millenium <small>B.C.</small> the admixture of these two civilisations, with some Minoan additions, had produced a rich, complex society along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. Fortified towns were built and the best harbors on the coast were utilized; inland, along [[Caravan|caravan]] routes, walled cities such as '''Jerusalem''' appeared. Inhabiting the area were nomadic and semi-nomadic Semites such as Amorites, Canaanites, Aramaeans, and Hebrews whose mode of life is best portrayed in the Old Testament. |
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| − | In prehistoric times, (8000-3200 <small>B.C.</small>), there were perhaps forty agricultural communities, or states, strung like beads along the ribbon of the Nile north of the First Cataract. By about 5000 <small>B.C.</small> Egypt had been unified to the extent that there were two kingdoms: one in the Delta (Lower Egypt) and one in the Valley (Upper Egypt). After many centuries of warfare the two kingdoms were combined, traditionally by '''King Menes''' of Upper Egypt, into a single realm about the beginning of the Dynastic Period (3200 <small>B.C.</small>).
| + | Toward the end of the 2nd millenium <small>B.C.</small> the Egyptian, Hittite, and Mesopotamian governments became disorganized and weak, thus enabling the smaller geographic regions between them to enjoy more liberty of action and some independence. The patriarchs of the sagas in ''Genesis'' are legendary heroes. Some fo the '''Hebrew''' clans entered Canaan (the Levant coast) in the 14th century; others roamed in the wilderness. The '''Joseph tribes''' settled at Goshen, in the eastern delta of the Nile. |
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| − | For convenience in chronology, the rulers of Egypt are identified by dynasties, each dynasty being made up of a succession of rulers belonging to a single family or tracing descent to a common ancestor. Reigning dynasties came to an end as a result of the accession to the throne of rulers from another line or family. In the early Dynastic Period (3200-1900 <small>B.C.</small>), three main subperiods are of special interest and importance: the Old Kingdom (Dynasties III – VI, 2780-2270 <small>B.C.</small>); the Middle Kingdom (Dynasties XI – XII, 2143-1790 <small>B.C.</small>); and the New Kingdom, or Empire (Dynasties XVIII – XX, 1555-1090 <small>B.C.</small>). In these subperiods, Egypt was most completely unified and prosperous, and the most outstanding cultural advances were made.
| + | Between 1225-1200 <small>B.C.</small> Moses led a revolt of the Joseph clans in Egypt, after they had been enslaved by Ramses II. '''Moses''' brought them to the oasis of Kadesh Barnea in the Sinai, on the edge of the Wilderness of Zin and the northwest of the Land of Edom. The tribe of Reuben (one of the 12 tribes) settled east of the Jordan, where the tribe of Gad was already living. The tribe of Judah began to move northward from the wilderness south of the Dead Sea. The Joseph tribes, under Joshua, crossed the Jordan and occupied the Mountain of Ephraim. The other tribes of Israel were already in Canaan, which was an Egyptian province. |
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| − | [[File:Gizeh Pyramids.jpg|left|315px|thumb|The Pyramids at Gizeh]]
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| − | ==== The Old Kingdom ====
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| − | The Pharoahs of the Old Kingdom were the famous pyramid builders: '''Zoser''' (Djoser) of the 3rd Dynasty, whose step pyramid was constructed at Saqqara, and '''Cheops''' (Khufu), '''Chephren''' (Kha-ef-Re) and '''Mycerinos''' (Men-kau-Re) of the 4th Dynasty, whose pyramids still stand at Gizeh. During this period the capital of Egypt was located at Memphis, in the northern part of the Nile Valley. While agriculture flourished in Egypt itself, trade relations were established with Phoenicia, the islands of the eastern Mediterranean, and Nubia to the south. Sinai, important as a source of copper, was brought under Egyptian control. The great pyramids are not only symbolic; they are also indicative of the power and wealth of the 4th Dynasty rulers. It has been conjectured that the huge funds lavished upon these royal burial chambers were responsible for the gradual weakness and decline of the Old Kingdom, which became more and more apparent in the time of the 5th and 6th Dynasties, and culminated in political and economic collapse after 2300 <small>B.C.</small> At any rate, the central power waned while local authorities gained strength, with the result that Egypt fell into a disorganized feudalism which lasted for almost four centuries.
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| − | ==== The Middle Kingdom ====
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| − | [[File:Karnak.jpg|right|315px|thumb|Karnak, begun during the reign of Senusret I (1920-1875 <small>B.C.</small>) during the Middle Kingdom]]
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| − | This subperiod opened with the rise of a strong power at Thebes in the south. By the time of the 12th Dynasty (2000 <small>B.C.</small>), Egypt had progressed a long way on the road to reunification. Under '''Amenemhet''' (2000-1980 <small>B.C.</small>) and Sesotris I (Se’n-Wosret I) (1980-1950 <small>B.C.</small>), the feudal nobility were disciplined, and Egypt began to penetrate south of the First Cataract. Sesotris III (1887-1849 <small>B.C.</small>) even carried the Egyptian standards into Syria in the first military display of Egypt in that direction. The Middle Kingdom is the classic period of Egyptian art and literature, when the canons of Egyptian taste were established. Once more agriculture prospered, and trade with Syria and Nubia increased in volume. Egyptian merchants also began to appear along the Red Sea. The period ended in confusion and was followed by the invasion of the delta by the '''Hyksos''' from Syria, and the collapse of the central authority in the valley.
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| − | ==== The New Kingdom ====
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| − | The interval between the invasion by the Hyksos and the rise of the New Kingdom is rather shorter than the period which divides the Old Kingdom from the Middle Kingdom. By 1600 <small>B.C.</small>, the presence of the Hyksos in the Delta had led to the development of a strong Egyptian nationalist movement aimed at the explusion of the invaders. Led by Sekhem-Re, a good soldier who became the first Pharoah of the XVII Dynasty, the Egyptians drove out the Hyksos (1600 <small>B.C.</small>). The new ruler then uprooted the last of the feudal lords and confiscated their lands. With unity and order re-established in Egypt, the government was centralized and administered by an extensive bureaucracy.
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| − | ==== Height of Power ====
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| − | Under the Pharoahs of the XVIII Dynasty (1555-1350 <small>B.C.</small>), Egypt acquired an empire in Syria and became the most powerful state in the Near East. Amenhotep I (1555-1540 <small>B.C.</small>) was the first of the Egyptian rulers to reach the Euphrates, but it was a later ruler, '''Hatshepsut''', sister and wife of Thutmosis II, and later of '''Thutmosis III''' (1501-1448 <small>B.C.</small>) who conquered Syria in the course of almost two decades of annual campaigning. Thutmose was the victor at Megiddo (Armageddon) and Kadesh, and the scourge of the Mitannians; his favor was sought even by the then remote Hittites of Asia Minor. His gains were consolidated by his successors, Amenhotep II (1448-1420 <small>B.C.</small>) and Thutmose IV (1420-1411 <small>B.C.</small>). The latter allied himself with the Mitannians against the Hittites and married the daughter of the Mitannian king. Under Amenhotep III (Memnon) (1411-1375 <small>B.C.</small>), the political influence of Egypt reached its highest point. Amenhotep’s reign was noted for its peace and prosperity; all other nations feared Egypt and courted the favor of her rulers.
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| − | [[File:Abu Simbel.jpg|right|315px|thumb|Colossal Statues of Rameses II at Abu Simbel]]
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| − | After Amenhotep’s death, however, and with the accession of his son, Amenhotep IV, decline was rapid. While Amenhotep IV, who for religious reasons changed his name to Ikhnaton, ignored the empire and devoted himself to religious reforms, the Hittites won over the Mitannians and the Syrian princes, and began to penetrate the northern boundaries of the Egyptian empire. The boy-king '''Tutankhamen''' fared no better. The process of disintigration was temporarily stayed by the general, '''Horemheb''', and his successors of the XIX Dynasty, who ascended the throne in the latter part of the 14th century <small>B.C.</small> Seti I temporarily halted the advance of the Hittites, and his son, '''Rameses II''' (1292-1225 <small>B.C.</small>), met them in a great battle at Kadesh in 1288 <small>B.C.</small> Unable to push the Hittites from Syria, Rameses signed a treaty with them in 1266 which recognized their claim to the northern area and retained southern Syria for Egypt.
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| − | The end of the 13th century B.C. found Egypt threatened by new perils. The sea raiders (Philistines and others from the north) were plundering the Delta as the Libyans pressed in from the west. The Hittites, who might now have become valuable Egyptian allies, were even more harried than the Egyptians by peoples from the north. The great Pharaoh of the XX Dynasty, Rameses III (1198-1167 B.C.), repelled the worst of the invasions, but the empire was lost, and the drain on Egyptian finance and manpower occasioned by continuous wars at last brought complete collapse at the end of the 12th century B.C. For the next four hundred years, Egypt was weak and disorganized under a succession of Egyptian, Libyan and even Nubian kings.
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| − | == Mesopotamia ==
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| − | '''The Land between the Rivers''' is the name often applied to the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. Broadly speaking, Mesopotamia is the habitable area bounded by the Persian Gulf on the southeast, by the mountains of Iran and Asia Minor on the east and north, and by the deserts of the Levant and Arabia on the west and south. The major axis runs from northwest to southeast, and the two main topographical divisions are the highlands of the nouth and the plain of the south. In ancient times, it included the territory of later Babylonia and Assyria.
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| − | Human habitation of the highland area of Mesopotamia began at least as early as the Neolithic Age, but did not invade the plain, which was then swampy, until 5000 or possibly 4000 <small>B.C.</small> It was on the plain, however, that the first great civilisations arose. Later peoples, following the first penetration into the valley, swept onto the plain from the deserts and highlands to destroy and absorb, or create new periods of cultural endeavor. Thus the history of Mesopotamia may be subdivided according to the empires, dynasties and periods of eclipse that successively flourished and waned there.
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| − | ==== Sumeria & Akkad ====
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| − | The first civilised inhabitants descended from the mountains of Elam to the swampy plain at the head of the Persian Gulf, which became ancient Sumer. They drained the swamps, instituted flood control and established agriculture on a permanent basis. With the development of trade with the surrounding areas — Persia, Elam, Assyria, India and the Mediterranean coast — the Sumerian settlements grew into prosperous city states, which by 3500 <small>B.C.</small> possessed a mature civilisation characterised by urban life, metal working, textile manufacture, monumental architecture and an efficient system of cuneiform writing. Cultural traits included sculpture, astronomy for calendrical purposes and slavery. | |
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| − | the southern plain at the head of the Persian Gulf was dotted with Sumerian city states, which were theocratic. Each state was considered the property of a particular local god, who was represented on earth by a high priest (''patesi'') who was the religious and governmental head of his community and its surrounding territory. Geographic areas of great importance in this early period were the cities of Ur, Erech, umma, Eridu, Lagash, Nippur, Sippar and Akkad, a Semitic state in the north. These states traded with one another. Interstate wars were common, and sometimes brief local empires were established when one state would conquer a few of its neighbours. About the middle of the 3rd millennium <small>B.C.</small>, however, Semitic tribes from the Arabian Peninsula, who had settled in the northern Fertile Crescent and adopted Sumerian culture, became strong enough to endanger Sumerian independence.
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| − | '''Sargon of Akkad''', 2637-2582 <small>B.C.</small>, conquered the Sumerians and carved out an empire which stretched from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea. After perhaps 2500 <small>B.C.</small>, however, the Akkadian power declined, and a new period of independence and prosperity began for the Sumerians; this is the era of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur and the greatness of Lagash under Gudea. Other important states included Isin and Larsa. At times the influence of the plain extended into the Assyrian highlands, which benefitted from the northward diffusion of Sumerian civilisation. The end came about 2000 <small>B.C.</small> with the rise of the Amorite kingdom, a new Semitic state. The Sumerians lost their independence forever, and the old areas of Sumer and Akkad were swallowed up by the empire of '''Old Babylonia'''.
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| − | Sumerian epids on the Creation and the Flood reflect considerable literary ability and appreciation.
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| − | ==== Old Babylonia ====
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| − | The Amorite invasion came principally from the west, resulting in the establishment of what came to be known as the Old Babylonian Kingdom (distinct from later Babylon states). The plain was united once more, and its political capital was located in the city of Babylon. The sixth king of the new Semitic dynasty as the noted lawgiver, '''Hammurabi''' (1955-1913 <small>B.C.</small>). His ''Code of Hammurabi'' demonstrates the complicated institutional system and the rather advanced economic and business life in place during this period. Old Babylonian civilisation was founded on the Sumerian model, but an important change in economic life took place as the old barter economy was replaced by one in which gold, silver and bronze were the medium of exchange. As in Babylonia, so in Assyria the Semitic element became the predominant one.
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| − | Shortly after Hammurabi's death, Mesopotamia was invaded and Babylon was sacked by the Hittites of Asia Minor (1595 <small>B.C.</small>), resulting in the shift in power that enabled the rise of the Mitannian and Kassite dynasties.
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| − | ==== Mitannian & Kassite Kingdoms ====
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| − | In the succeeding age, however, the Semites suffered a temporary eclipse. About 1600 <small>B.C.</small> in Babylonia, and at least a century earlier in Assyria, new groups came into prominence. Out of the northern mountains came the '''Hurrians''', who overran Assyria and formed the largest segment of population in the Mittanian Kingdom, which flourished in the highlands between the eastern mountains and the upper Euphrates (c.1450-1350 <small>B.C.</small>). But the Hurrians were not the only invaders of Mesopotamia in this period. Political power both in the highlands and on the plain was concentrated in the hands of the Kassites, another and probably very small group of newcomers, whose culture relates them to the Aryan invaders of India. The Kassites overthrew the Old Babylonian Dynasty about 1600 <small>B.C.</small> and, constituting a minority of nobles, holding their position by right of conquest, the Kassites ruled the plain for four hundred years. Their kings were grand monarchs who corresponded on equal terms with the pharoah of Egypt and the Great King of the Hittites, but the cultural contribution of the Kassites was negligible. The major features of Babylonian civilisation were unchanged.
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| − | Both the Mitannian and Kassite kingdoms ultimately fell before the resurgent Semites. In the 14th century <small>B.C.</small> a Semitic kingdom was established in Assyria, which pushed the Mitannians westward to the region of the upper Euphrates. Then the '''Assyrians''' on one side and the Hittites on the other exerted a continuous pressure which squeezed the Mitannian Kingdom out of existence shortly after 1350 <small>B.C.</small> Henceforth, the highlands were Assyrian, who would come to establish a huge empire in the Near East.
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| − | '''Continued in [[The Early Iron Age]]'''
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| − | See Also,<br>
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| − | [[History]]<br>
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| − | [[The Chalcolithic Period]]
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The Bronze Age describes a technological stage where bronze replaces flint and stone as the chief material for weapons and tools. However, the discovery that copper could be hardened through the addition of tin, to form a bronze alloy, was secondary to the more fundamental one that moldable metal could be produced from copper ore. Whether standard bronze, having about one part of tin to nine of copper, was used in any particular region depended mainly on the availability of tin. It was possible, for instance, that a complex civilisation could flourish in Egypt despite a continued reliance on copper.
The period reflects the birth of "civilisation," in which the world saw city states arise in the most fertile areas. This development led to the rise of territorial states and empires. Trade increasingly became a source of power, as states with access to important resources or controlling important trade routes rose to dominance.
Palestine
At the beginning of the 3rd millenium B.C. the kings of the early dynasties of Egypt were sending expeditions northward to conquer the Asiatic coastland in order to control its commerce and obtain timber, metals, and other raw materials. It was in this area that the goods of Egypt and Babylonia were exchanged. By the middle of the 2nd millenium B.C. the admixture of these two civilisations, with some Minoan additions, had produced a rich, complex society along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. Fortified towns were built and the best harbors on the coast were utilized; inland, along caravan routes, walled cities such as Jerusalem appeared. Inhabiting the area were nomadic and semi-nomadic Semites such as Amorites, Canaanites, Aramaeans, and Hebrews whose mode of life is best portrayed in the Old Testament.
Toward the end of the 2nd millenium B.C. the Egyptian, Hittite, and Mesopotamian governments became disorganized and weak, thus enabling the smaller geographic regions between them to enjoy more liberty of action and some independence. The patriarchs of the sagas in Genesis are legendary heroes. Some fo the Hebrew clans entered Canaan (the Levant coast) in the 14th century; others roamed in the wilderness. The Joseph tribes settled at Goshen, in the eastern delta of the Nile.
Between 1225-1200 B.C. Moses led a revolt of the Joseph clans in Egypt, after they had been enslaved by Ramses II. Moses brought them to the oasis of Kadesh Barnea in the Sinai, on the edge of the Wilderness of Zin and the northwest of the Land of Edom. The tribe of Reuben (one of the 12 tribes) settled east of the Jordan, where the tribe of Gad was already living. The tribe of Judah began to move northward from the wilderness south of the Dead Sea. The Joseph tribes, under Joshua, crossed the Jordan and occupied the Mountain of Ephraim. The other tribes of Israel were already in Canaan, which was an Egyptian province.
