Modern History - Revision history

Tao alexis at 19:26, 5 March 2025

2025-03-05T19:26:21Z

Tao alexis at 19:23, 5 March 2025

2025-03-05T19:23:29Z

Maxwell: /* Culture & Science */

2023-10-25T21:09:58Z

Culture & Science

Maxwell: /* Empires */

2023-10-25T21:09:15Z

Empires

Tao alexis at 21:25, 3 April 2021

2021-04-03T21:25:11Z

Tao alexis at 14:42, 6 September 2020

2020-09-06T14:42:57Z

Tao alexis: /* Empires */

2020-09-06T14:31:33Z

Empires

Tao alexis at 14:31, 6 September 2020

2020-09-06T14:31:13Z

Tao alexis at 14:30, 6 September 2020

2020-09-06T14:30:42Z

Tao alexis at 03:38, 29 March 2020

2020-03-29T03:38:54Z

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-[[File:Nordlingen.jpg|right|560px]]
+[[File:Modern History.jpg|right|560px|thumb]]
 '''Modern History''' as it is understood in 1650, refers to the period beginning around 1500, marking a shift from medieval traditions toward the emerging structures of the contemporary world.  Trade and travel are bringing distant lands into ever closer contact, fostering both wealth and conflict. Nations grow in strength, their rulers seeking to extend their reach, whether by conquest, commerce or diplomacy. At home and abroad, power is shifting — sometimes gradually, sometimes in sudden, violent upheavals.  Society remains ordered, but its foundations are no longer entirely firm. The old ways still govern much, yet wealth and knowledge create opportunities unknown in ages past. Cities grow, merchants prosper, and the power of money rivals that of birth. But for many, life is much as it has always been — governed by land, duty and tradition.
 __TOC__
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 See also,<br>
-[[History (sage study)|History (study)]]<br>
+[[History (sage study)]]<br>
 [[World History]]

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 [[File:Nordlingen.jpg|right|560px]]
-'''Modern History''' describes the history of the world after 1500.  The '''present date is 1650'''.
+'''Modern History''' as it is understood in 1650, refers to the period beginning around 1500, marking a shift from medieval traditions toward the emerging structures of the contemporary world.  Trade and travel are bringing distant lands into ever closer contact, fostering both wealth and conflict. Nations grow in strength, their rulers seeking to extend their reach, whether by conquest, commerce or diplomacy. At home and abroad, power is shifting — sometimes gradually, sometimes in sudden, violent upheavals.  Society remains ordered, but its foundations are no longer entirely firm. The old ways still govern much, yet wealth and knowledge create opportunities unknown in ages past. Cities grow, merchants prosper, and the power of money rivals that of birth. But for many, life is much as it has always been — governed by land, duty and tradition.
-== Exploration ==
+Scientific and intellectual inquiry has also accelerated. The works of Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler have challenged traditional views of the universe, while figures such as Francis Bacon and René Descartes have promoted new methods of reasoning and investigation. While the full impact of these ideas is still unfolding, they are beginning to shift the way people understand the natural world and humanity’s place in it.
-This era of colonialism established mercantilism as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as an effort to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy.  This promoted imperialism, [[Tariffs|tariffs]] and subsidies on traded goods.  The world map was updated to show the classical continents of the world, as well as a yet undetermined Terra Australis.  In the last 40 years, the Dutch East India Company, the first megacorporation, has begun to supplant the Portuguese in Asia, with many small wars and conflicts that are still ongoing.
+Politically, monarchies remain dominant across Europe, but their authority is being challenged in new ways. The Protestant Reformation, which began in the early 16th century, has fractured religious unity and led to prolonged conflicts, such as the Thirty Years’ War, which is drawing to a close. Meanwhile, England has undergone a civil war, with tensions between the monarchy and Parliament leading to the execution of King Charles I in 1649. The concept of governance is evolving, though absolute rulers such as Louis XIV of France continue to consolidate power.
-European colonization of the Americas began in earnest, beginning with the fall of Mexico and Peru and reaching forward to the establishment of colonies from Georgia to Lower Canada.  Peace was agreed upon with Algonquin and Elvish tribes in the interior Appalachian region following brief skirmishes in the 1630s.
+Economically, mercantilism is shaping policy, with states seeking to control resources and protect national industries. Banking and finance are becoming more sophisticated, particularly in the Netherlands and Italy, where institutions like the Dutch East India Company and various banking houses influence global commerce. Cities are growing as trade hubs, and social mobility is more fluid than in previous centuries, though rigid class structures still define much of society.
-== Religion ==
+In short, the age stands at a crossroads. The world is larger and more connected than ever before, and old structures are beginning to change. What comes next is uncertain, but the forces that have been set in motion will continue to shape the future.
-Persia and Mesopotamia were caught by major popularity of the Shiite sect of Islam, under the rule of the [[Sultanate of the Safavids|Safavid dynasty]] of warrior-mystics, providing grounds for a Persian independence in the majority-Sunni Muslim world.
+== World Powers ==
-== Culture & Science ==
+France is rising rapidly, consolidating royal power under an increasingly centralized monarchy. Though it has been weakened by internal conflicts in the past, the French state is growing stronger, with an expanding army and ambitions to assert itself as the leading power in Europe. Its economy is developing, its population is large, and its influence over culture and politics is spreading. France has the potential to eclipse Spain as the dominant European power, and with a strong and ambitious monarch, it is well-positioned to shape the future of the continent.
-Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe, which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 supernova.  These events led to major revolutions in [[Natural Astronomy|astronomy]] and science.
+England is emerging as a naval and commercial power, despite the political turmoil of its civil war and the execution of its king. The monarchy has been abolished, and the country is now ruled as a republic, though it is uncertain whether this new order will last. While not as wealthy or powerful as Spain or France, England’s navy is growing, its merchants are expanding trade overseas, and its colonial ambitions in the Americas and the East Indies are taking shape. If England can stabilize politically, it could become a major force in global affairs.
-Louis XIII constructed the Palace of Versailles, with [[Kingdom of France|France]] today under the rulership of Louis XIV.  Europe has been possessed by the Baroque cultural movement, which has arisen in the last 15 years.
+The Ottoman Empire remains the dominant power in the eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, and much of the Middle East. It commands a vast and diverse empire, with an army that can still challenge European states and a strategic position that controls key trade routes. However, it is facing increasing internal difficulties. The administration is struggling under the weight of its enormous territory, and economic and military reforms have not kept pace with the changing nature of warfare. While still a great empire, the Ottomans must contend with both internal challenges and external threats to maintain their power.
-== Empires ==
+The Safavid Empire rules Persia, acting as a counterbalance to the Ottomans in the east. It controls the trade routes of Iran and maintains a strong military, especially its cavalry and gunpowder forces. The empire’s distinct Shi’a identity sets it apart from both the Sunni Ottomans and the Mughals to the east. Persia is a key player in regional politics, controlling an important crossroads between Europe, India, and the Middle East. However, like its neighbors, the Safavid state must constantly manage threats from both internal factions and rival powers.
-In the Indian subcontinent, following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate, new powers emerged.  The Suri Empire was founded by Sher Shah Suri and [[The Mughal Empire|the Mughal Empire]] by Babur, a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan.  His successors Humayana and Akbar enlarged the empire to include most of South Asia.  The empire developed a strong and stable economy in the world, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture, which significantly influenced the course of Indian history.
+The Mughal Empire dominates the Indian subcontinent, ruling over a vast and wealthy population. Its cities, such as Delhi, Agra, and Lahore, are centers of trade, culture, and administration, and its economy rivals those of Europe. The Mughals maintain a powerful army and an effective bureaucracy that allows them to govern their diverse empire. Their wealth and resources make them a crucial player in global trade, particularly as European merchants seek to gain access to India's goods. Though secure in its power, the empire must manage the challenges of ruling a vast and multi-ethnic society.
-China evacuated the coastal areas, because of Japanese piracy.  The collapsing Ming dynasty was challenged by the Manchu warlord Nurhaci, consolidated by his son Hong Taiji and finally consummated by his grandson, the Shunzi Emperor, founder of the Qing dynasty.  This dynasty has ruled China proper for six years.
+China is in a state of turmoil. The once-mighty Ming Dynasty has collapsed, and the Qing, a Manchu-led dynasty, is in the process of consolidating control. However, the transition has been far from smooth. The fall of the Ming was marked by widespread rebellion, economic instability, and foreign incursions, leaving much of the empire in chaos. The Qing have already taken Beijing, but resistance remains strong, particularly in the south, where Ming loyalists continue to fight. While China is still an immense and wealthy land, its internal divisions prevent it from exerting the kind of influence it once held. Trade continues, and foreign merchants, particularly the Dutch and Portuguese, seek to benefit from the shifting political landscape, but for now, China is focused on its own survival rather than projecting power beyond its borders. Whether the Qing can fully secure the empire remains uncertain, and the country’s future is still in flux.
+See also,<br>
 [[History (sage study)|History (study)]]<br>
 [[World History]]

@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 == Culture & Science ==
-In Italy, various contributions made by renaissance leading figures led to the foundation of important subjects which include accounting and political science.  Galileo Galilei invented tools and made substantial contributions to the mastery of magic and science.
+In Italy, various contributions made by leading Renaissance figures led to the foundation of important subjects which include accounting and political science.  Galileo Galilei invented tools and made substantial contributions to the mastery of magic and science.
 Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe, which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 supernova.  These events led to major revolutions in [[Natural Astronomy|astronomy]] and science.

@@ Line 25: / Line 25: @@
 In the Middle East, [[The Ottoman Empire|the Ottoman Empire]] continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, while dealing with a resurgent Persia.
-In the Indian subcontinent, following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate, new powers emerged.  The Suri Empire was founded by Sher Shah Suri and [[The Mughal Empire|the Mughal Empire]] by Babur, a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan.  His successors Humayana and Akbar enlarged the empire to include most of South Asia.  The empire developed a strong and stable economy in the world, leading to commercial expansionand greater patronage of culture, which significantly influenced the course of Indian history.
+In the Indian subcontinent, following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate, new powers emerged.  The Suri Empire was founded by Sher Shah Suri and [[The Mughal Empire|the Mughal Empire]] by Babur, a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan.  His successors Humayana and Akbar enlarged the empire to include most of South Asia.  The empire developed a strong and stable economy in the world, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture, which significantly influenced the course of Indian history.
 China evacuated the coastal areas, because of Japanese piracy.  The collapsing Ming dynasty was challenged by the Manchu warlord Nurhaci, consolidated by his son Hong Taiji and finally consummated by his grandson, the Shunzi Emperor, founder of the Qing dynasty.  This dynasty has ruled China proper for six years.

@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 In Italy, various contributions made by renaissance leading figures led to the foundation of important subjects which include accounting and political science.  Galileo Galilei invented tools and made substantial contributions to the mastery of magic and science.
-Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe, which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 supernova.  These events led to major revolutions in astronomy and science.
+Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe, which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 supernova.  These events led to major revolutions in [[Natural Astronomy|astronomy]] and science.
 Louis XIII constructed the Palace of Versailles, with [[Kingdom of France|France]] today under the rulership of Louis XIV.  Europe has been possessed by the Baroque cultural movement, which has arisen in the last 15 years.

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 == Exploration ==
-During the 16th century, Spain and Portugal explored the Indian Ocean and opened worldwide oceanic trade routes, after Vasco da Gama was given permission by the Indian Sultans to settle in the wealthy Bengal Sultanate.  Large parts of the New World became Spanish and Portuguese colonies, and while the Portuguese became the masters of Asia's and Africa's Indian Ocean trade, the Spanish opened trade across the Pacific Ocean, linking the Americas with India.
+During the 16th century, [[The Spanish Empire|Spain]] and [[The Portuguese Empire|Portugal]] explored the Indian Ocean and opened worldwide oceanic trade routes, after Vasco da Gama was given permission by the Indian Sultans to settle in the wealthy [[Mansabdar of Bengal|Bengal Sultanate]].  Large parts of the New World became Spanish and Portuguese colonies, and while the Portuguese became the masters of Asia's and Africa's Indian Ocean trade, the Spanish opened trade across the Pacific Ocean, linking the Americas with India.
-This era of colonialism established mercantilism as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as an effort to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy.  This promoted imperialism, tariffs and subsidies on traded goods.  The world map was updated to show the classical continents of the world, as well as a yet undetermined Terra Australis.  In the last 40 years, the Dutch East India Company, the first megacorporation, has begun to supplant the Portuguese in Asia, with many small wars and conflicts that are still ongoing.
+This era of colonialism established mercantilism as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as an effort to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy.  This promoted imperialism, [[Tariffs|tariffs]] and subsidies on traded goods.  The world map was updated to show the classical continents of the world, as well as a yet undetermined Terra Australis.  In the last 40 years, the Dutch East India Company, the first megacorporation, has begun to supplant the Portuguese in Asia, with many small wars and conflicts that are still ongoing.
 European colonization of the Americas began in earnest, beginning with the fall of Mexico and Peru and reaching forward to the establishment of colonies from Georgia to Lower Canada.  Peace was agreed upon with Algonquin and Elvish tribes in the interior Appalachian region following brief skirmishes in the 1630s.
@@ Line 12: / Line 12: @@
 The Protestant Reformation gave a major blow to the authority of the papacy and the Catholic Church.  European politics became dominated by religious conflicts, with the groundwork for the Thirty Years' War being laid towards the end of the 1500s.  In England, Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law, dividing secularism from canon law and Catholic theology.  The Thirty Years War began in 1618 and came to an end just two years ago, after the death of at least 8 million persons.
-Persia and Mesopotamia were caught by major popularity of the Shiite sect of Islam, under the rule of the Safavid dynasty of warrior-mystics, providing grounds for a Persian independence in the majority-Sunni Muslim world.
+Persia and Mesopotamia were caught by major popularity of the Shiite sect of Islam, under the rule of the [[Sultanate of the Safavids|Safavid dynasty]] of warrior-mystics, providing grounds for a Persian independence in the majority-Sunni Muslim world.
 == Culture & Science ==
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe, which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 supernova.  These events led to major revolutions in astronomy and science.
-Louis XIII constructed the Palace of Versailles, with France today under the rulership of Louis XIV.  Europe has been possessed by the Baroque cultural movement, which has arisen in the last 15 years.
+Louis XIII constructed the Palace of Versailles, with [[Kingdom of France|France]] today under the rulership of Louis XIV.  Europe has been possessed by the Baroque cultural movement, which has arisen in the last 15 years.
 == Empires ==
 [[File:Taj Mahal.jpg|right|560px]]
-In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, while dealing with a resurgent Persia.
+In the Middle East, [[The Ottoman Empire|the Ottoman Empire]] continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, while dealing with a resurgent Persia.
-In the Indian subcontinent, following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate, new powers emerged.  The Suri Empire was founded by Sher Shah Suri and the Mughal Empire by Babur, a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan.  His successors Humayana and Akbar enlarged the empire to include most of South Asia.  The empire developed a strong and stable economy in the world, leading to commercial expansionand greater patronage of culture, which significantly influenced the course of Indian history.
+In the Indian subcontinent, following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate, new powers emerged.  The Suri Empire was founded by Sher Shah Suri and [[The Mughal Empire|the Mughal Empire]] by Babur, a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan.  His successors Humayana and Akbar enlarged the empire to include most of South Asia.  The empire developed a strong and stable economy in the world, leading to commercial expansionand greater patronage of culture, which significantly influenced the course of Indian history.
 China evacuated the coastal areas, because of Japanese piracy.  The collapsing Ming dynasty was challenged by the Manchu warlord Nurhaci, consolidated by his son Hong Taiji and finally consummated by his grandson, the Shunzi Emperor, founder of the Qing dynasty.  This dynasty has ruled China proper for six years.

← Older revision		Revision as of 03:38, 29 March 2020
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−	~~Placeholder~~.	+	History world-wide relating to the last 150 years. Principal features are the expansion of empires throughout Africa and the rise of the European slave trade, the religious wars of Europe and the expansion of Moscovy, the hegemony of the Ottoman, Safavid and Moghul empires, the steady decline of the Ming dynasty in China and the expansion of European power in the New World.
		+
		+	Present day begins 1650.
		+	<br>
		+	<br>
		+	See Also,<br>
		+	[[History (sage study)\|History (study)]]<br>
		+	[[World History]]