Iron Age - Revision history

Tao alexis: /* China */

2026-04-14T23:18:20Z

China

Tao alexis: /* Scythia & Medea */

2026-04-14T23:17:59Z

Scythia & Medea

Tao alexis at 19:25, 2 March 2025

2025-03-02T19:25:02Z

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Tao alexis: /* Scythia & Medea */

2025-03-02T19:08:08Z

Scythia & Medea

Tao alexis: /* Babylon */

2025-03-02T19:07:11Z

Babylon

Tao alexis: /* Assyria */

2025-03-02T19:04:19Z

Assyria

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Tao alexis: /* Urartu */

2025-03-02T18:57:31Z

Urartu

Tao alexis: /* Syria */

2025-03-02T18:54:14Z

Syria

Tao alexis: /* Israel & Judah */

2025-03-02T18:50:36Z

Israel & Judah

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Tao alexis: /* Phoenicia */

2025-03-02T18:46:16Z

Phoenicia

@@ Line 276: / Line 276: @@
 During the Eastern Chao era, roughly 770 to 600 BCE, the feudal states began to consolidate their own power. The chief states included Qi and Lu, dividing the Shandong peninsula and the former Chao heartlands; Yan on the north coast near the Yellow Sea; Qin in modern Shanxi; Chu in the middle Yangtze River valley; and the small state of Shun west of Lu. These states maintained semi-independent administrations, levied taxes and conscripted armies, while their rulers still acknowledged the Chao king ceremonially.
 See also,<br>
-[[Classical Period]]
+[[Classical Period]]<br>
 [[History (sage study)]]<br>
 [[World History]]
-[[Category: Incomplete]]
+[[Category: Reviewed]]

@@ Line 252: / Line 252: @@
 With his army, Nabopolassar seized the strategic city of Nippur, a key Assyrian stronghold, cutting off southern Assyria from its power base. In 612 <small>B.C.</small>, he and his Median allies took part in the siege and destruction of Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, delivering a final blow to the empire. With the collapse of Assyria, Nabopolassar secured Babylonia's independence and established a new Chaldean dynasty, which would rule into the next century, marking the beginning of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.
-== Scythia & Medea ==
+== Medea ==
 See also,<br>
 [[History (sage study)]]<br>
 [[World History]]
 [[Category: Incomplete]]

@@ Line 255: / Line 255: @@
-See Also,<br>
+See also,<br>
-[[Ancient History]]<br>
+[[History (sage study)]]<br>
-[[History]]<br>
+[[World History]]
-[[History (sage study)]]

@@ Line 239: / Line 239: @@
 == Babylon ==
-With the waning of the Kassites, '''Nebuchadnezzar I''' (1146-1123 <small>B.C.</small>) defeated the Elamites and consolidated the Middle Babylonian kingdom.  He broke the back of the Kassite nobility, conquered the Amorites and after a failed campaign against the Assyrians, made peace with them.  He would be succeeded first by his son Enlilnadin (1103-1100 <small>B.C.</small>), then by his brother Marduknadin (1099-1082 <small>B.C.</small>), who with other members of the court would put Enlilnadin to the sword so as to end the latter's campaign against Assyria.  Marduknadin would himself be assassinated by Mardukshapik (1082-1069 <small>B.C.</small>), his brother.
+With the waning of the Kassites, Nebuchadnezzar I (1146-1123 <small>B.C.</small>) defeated the Elamites and consolidated the Middle Babylonian Kingdom. He broke the power of the Kassite nobility, conquered the Amorites, and, after a failed campaign against Assyria, made peace with them. He was succeeded first by his son Enlilnadin (1103-1100 <small>B.C.</small>), then by his brother Marduknadin (1099-1082 <small>B.C.</small>), who, along with other members of the court, had Enlilnadin put to the sword to end his disastrous campaign against Assyria. Marduknadin would himself be assassinated by his brother Mardukshapik (1082-1069 <small>B.C.</small>), continuing the cycle of internal bloodshed.
-During this period of chaos, amidst a succession of unimportant kings, the Aramaeans would raid into Babylonia, while fractious wars with Assyria would continue.  The Kassites would reassert themselves (100-984); Babylonia would be plundered by the Aramaeans (977) and the kingdom would be restored under Nabumukin (977-943 <small>B.C.</small>).  King '''Shamash''' of Babylonia (917-900 <small>B.C.</small>) would be defeated by Adad-Ninari II in 902 <small>B.C.</small>, but though territory was lost, would remain in control of the kingdom.  Between 900 and 850 <small>B.C.</small>, Mesopotamia would be overrun by nomads, the Chaldaeans, who would settle in the marshes of the southeast, along the Persian Gulf.
+During this period of chaos, as a succession of weak and unimportant kings took the throne, Aramean tribes raided deep into Babylonia, while fratricidal wars with Assyria persisted. The Kassites briefly reasserted control (1000-984 <small>B.C.</small>), but Babylon was again plundered by the Arameans in 977 <small>B.C.</small>. Stability was temporarily restored under King Nabumukin (977-943 <small>B.C.</small>), but the kingdom remained weakened and vulnerable.
-The wars with Assyria were disastrous for Babylonia.  Shalmaneser III of Assyria sacked Babylon (843 <small>B.C.</small>), killing king Nabuapla.  Later kings were reduced to vassalage; Adad-ninari III of Assyria ruled Babylon as a viceroy under '''Semiramis''' (808-800 <small>B.C.</small>).  Later kings would become vassals until Babylon was finally subjugated by Tiglath-pileser III in 729.
+King Shamash of Babylonia (917-900 <small>B.C.</small>) was defeated by Adad-Nirari II in 902 <small>B.C.</small>, resulting in territorial losses, though Babylonia remained an independent state. Between 900 and 850 <small>B.C.</small>, Mesopotamia was overrun by nomadic Chaldean tribes, who settled in the marshes of the southeast, along the Persian Gulf.
-==== Chaldaean Babylon ====
+The wars with Assyria proved disastrous. Shalmaneser III of Assyria sacked Babylon in 843 <small>B.C.</small>, killing King Nabuapla and reducing Babylonian rulers to vassalage. Adad-Nirari III of Assyria later ruled Babylon as a viceroy under Queen Semiramis (808-800 <small>B.C.</small>). Subsequent kings remained subject to Assyrian rule, until Tiglath-Pileser III finally subjugated Babylon completely in 729 <small>B.C.</small>, marking the end of Babylon’s independence for nearly a century.
-After a series of unsuccessful rebellions against the Assyria, though these would sometimes grant momentary periods of self-rule for Babylonia, King '''Nabopolassar''' of Chaldaea (625-605 <small>B.C.</small>) united Babylonia.  Forming an alliance with '''Cyaxares''' of Medea, he confronted the Assyrians, seized the city of Nippur and took part in the destruction of Nineveh in 612 <small>B.C.</small>  Assyria collapsed and Nabopolassar established a dynasty that would last into the next century.
 == Scythia & Medea ==

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 == Urartu ==
-'''Urartu''' was a kingdom located in the large basin surrounding Lake Van, where the headwaters of the Araxes, Tigris and Arzanias begin.  The kingdom includes the principalities of Kurshi, Suhni, Qaria and Gilzan.  In population, the people were Hurrian, the same who descended into the upper Eurphates in the 17th century <small>B.C.</small> to found the [[Bronze_Age#Mitanni_Culture|Mitanni Kingdom]].  The descendents who remained behind in Urartu would learn to found iron and build with stone.  The great temple of Haldi, located in the lost city of Musasir somewhere between Lake Urmia and Lake Van, was dedicated to the god Haldi and his consort.  Tesheba, the god of storms, and Ardini, goddess of the sun, were part of the Urartan pantheon.
+Urartu was a kingdom situated in the large basin surrounding Lake Van, where the headwaters of the Araxes, Tigris, and Arzanias Rivers originate. The kingdom encompassed several principalities, including Kurshi, Suhni, Qaria, and Gilzan. Its population was predominantly Hurrian, descended from the same Hurrian groups who, in the 17th century <small>B.C.</small>, migrated to the upper Euphrates and established the Mitanni Kingdom. However, those who remained behind in Urartu developed their own distinct culture, learning to forge iron and build with stone, laying the foundations of a powerful regional state.
-The numerous Hurrian principalities raided the Assyrians from the 13th century <small>B.C.</small> onwards.  In the years 1113-1110 <small>B.C.</small>, these Hurrian groups were united under a single king against the Assyrian Tiglath-pileser I.  Further wars would be waged against Assyrian in 1070 <small>B.C.</small>; Adad-nirari II in 900; Tukulti II in 890; and with Ashurnasirpal II throughout his reign.  These wars resulted in little gain on either side, but each viewed the other as a blood enemy.
+A defining feature of Urartu was its religious devotion, centered around the great temple of Haldi, located in the lost city of Musasir, which lay somewhere between Lake Urmia and Lake Van. Haldi, the chief deity of the Urartian pantheon, was worshipped alongside his consort, while other important deities included Tesheba, the storm god, and Ardini, the goddess of the sun.
-==== Dynastic Period ====
+From as early as the 13th century <small>B.C.</small>, the Hurrian principalities of Urartu waged raids against Assyria, fostering a rivalry that would last for centuries. By 1113-1110 <small>B.C.</small>, these disparate Hurrian groups had united under a single king, launching a coordinated resistance against Tiglath-Pileser I of Assyria. This initiated a long series of conflicts between the two powers, including major wars in 1070 <small>B.C.</small>, 900 <small>B.C.</small> under Adad-nirari II, 890 <small>B.C.</small> under Tukulti-Ninurta II, and throughout the reign of Ashurnasirpal II. Despite their frequent clashes, neither Assyria nor Urartu could achieve a decisive victory, and the two civilizations came to regard one another as bitter blood enemies.
-'''Ishpuini''' (820-800 <small>B.C.</small>), son of Sardur I, reconquered Musasir, restored the temple and appointed his son Sardur the viceroy there.  Following an attack by Shamshi-Adad V, this Sardur was killed and the kingdom fell to his younger brother '''Menua''' (800-785), who enlarged the kingdom considerably, restoring some lands the Assyrians had conquered to the kingdom and increasing the Urartu's power considerably in the time of '''Semiramis'''.  Thereafter, Urartu would remain a serious threat on the flank of Assyria.
+=== Dynastic Period ===
-'''Argishtish''' (785-760 <small>B.C.</small>), son of Menua, annexed the territory along the Araxes and extended the boundaries of Urartu to the shores of Lake Erivan.  He defeated Shalmaneser IV, conquered the lands of the Diauehi and the Ararat, making Urartu the most powerful state in Asia Minor.  He built two great fortresses to maintain authority over these conquests.  His son, '''Sardur II''' (760-733) was the last great king of Urartu, maintaining the kingdom at the height of its power.  He fought Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria to a standstill; but this broke the expansion of Urartu.
+Sardur I relocated the Urartian capital to Tushpa, fortifying it as the new center of the kingdom. Declaring himself "King of the Four Quarters", he rejected Assyrian dominance and resumed raiding campaigns against Assyria during the rule of Shamshi-Adad V. This marked the beginning of Urartu’s resurgence, as Sardur sought to expand and consolidate his kingdom.
-==== Collapse ====
+His son, Ishpuini (820-800 <small>B.C.</small>), continued this policy of expansion. He reconquered Musasir, restoring the Temple of Haldi, and appointed his son, Sardur, as viceroy of the city. However, an Assyrian counterattack under Shamshi-Adad V led to the death of Sardur, leaving the kingdom in the hands of Menua (800-785 <small>B.C.</small>), Ishpuini’s younger son. Under Menua, Urartu expanded dramatically, reclaiming lost territories and challenging Assyrian control over the region. His reign coincided with the legendary rule of Semiramis, a semi-mythical queen of Assyria, and his conquests firmly established Urartu as a dominant force in Asia Minor.
-Between 733-612 <small>B.C.</small>, the kings of Urartu steadily lost the territory gained by their forefathers; the primary reason was the '''Cimmerians''', who migrated from the north beginning after 715 <small>B.C.</small>.  This, coupled with the raid of Sargon II of Assyria, weakened the kingdom.  By the reign of Sardur III (650-625), Urartu had lost its eastern lands.  Phrygia had fallen under the control of the Cimmerians, who occupied that country and were under continuous assault from Lydia after the 640s <small>B.C.</small>.  However, during the reign of the last king, Rusas III (625-612), Urartu was invaded by '''Scythians''' and their vassals, the '''Medes'''.  This massive raid would also lead to the destruction of Ninevah (612 <small>B.C.</small>) and the fall of the Assyrian Empire.
 == Assyria ==

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 == Syria ==
-After the destruction of the Hittite capital of Hattusa in 1180 <small>B.C.</small>, Syria saw a dispersal of settlements and ruralisation, with the appearance of large numbers of hamlets, villages and farmsteads.  Some former Hittite principalities continued to preserve their identity in the midst of the flood of Aramaic migrations, bringing Arameans, Amorites, Moabites, Edomites, Ammonites and Israelites to the Levant.  Chief among these principalities was '''Carchemish''', a lost city in the vicinity of present-day Jarabulus.
+After the destruction of Hattusa in 1180 <small>B.C.</small>, the collapse of Hittite power led to a period of dispersal and ruralization throughout Syria. The once-great urban centers gave way to a landscape dominated by hamlets, villages, and farmsteads, reflecting the breakdown of centralized administration. In the wake of this turmoil, remnants of Hittite principalities struggled to maintain their identity, even as waves of Aramaic migrations transformed the region. These migrations introduced Arameans, Amorites, Moabites, Edomites, Ammonites, and Israelites into the Levant, further altering the ethnic and political landscape.
-==== Carchemish ====
+=== Carchemish ===
-The city became an important trading center.  Kuzi-Tesup I, son of the last Hittite king Talmi-Teshub, founded a dynasty that ruled over a small kingdom surrounding the West Bend of the Euphrates.  The city held sway over the northern Fertile Crescent from 1175-975 <small>B.C.</small>, when it began to lose control over its farther possessions.  Steadily, by the 9th century, Carchemish was reduced to little more than a city state (849), when it was forced to pay tribute to the kings of Syria.  It would be conquered by Sargon II in 717 <small>B.C.</small>, during the reign of the last Carchemish king, Pisiri.  The city would be turned into an important Assyrian capital.
+Among the surviving Hittite enclaves, the most prominent was Carchemish, an important city near present-day Jarabulus. Despite the collapse of the greater Hittite Empire, Carchemish retained political influence and continued to function as a regional power. It became a focal point of resistance against foreign incursions while also acting as a conduit for Hittite cultural traditions, which persisted in the region for centuries.
-==== Aramean Kingdoms ====
+The city grew into a major trading center, serving as a hub for commerce and cultural exchange in the northern Fertile Crescent. Following the collapse of the Hittite Empire, Kuzi-Tesup I, son of the last Hittite king Talmi-Teshub, established a dynasty that ruled over a small but influential kingdom centered around the West Bend of the Euphrates. Under his descendants, Carchemish maintained dominance over northern Syria and southern Anatolia from 1175 to 975 <small>B.C.</small>. However, as external pressures mounted, the kingdom steadily lost control over its outer territories.
-West of the Euphrates, the small kingdoms of Gargum (capital, Marash), Samal, Hattin, Hamath, Zobah and '''Aram-Damascus'''.  Of these, the most important was Aram-Damascus; the remainder would exist as vassal states until they, too, were conquered by Sargon II between 720 and 719 <small>B.C.</small>.
+By the 9th century <small>B.C.</small>, Carchemish had declined into a city-state, its power significantly diminished. In 849 <small>B.C.</small>, it was forced to pay tribute to the rising kings of Syria, marking the end of its regional dominance. This weakened status persisted until 717 <small>B.C.</small>, when the Assyrian king Sargon II launched a campaign against Pisiri, the last ruler of Carchemish. The city fell, becoming an important administrative and military center within the Assyrian Empire.
-==== Damascus ====
+=== Aramean Kingdoms ===
-Settled first under the Hittites, the region was occupied by the Arameans (1000-965 <small>B.C.</small>), discovering the agricultural potential of what was a sparsely populated area.  A dynasty was founded in 970 by Rezon, whose father Eliada had been a general under Hadadezer, King of Zobah.  The new state of Damascus would expand southward, preventing the northward spread of the Kingdom of Israel.  The two kingdoms would clash repeatedly for more than a century.  King Ahab of Israel would ally with Ben-Hadad II of Damascus against the Assyrians at the '''battle of Qarqar''' (854).  Religiously, Damascus worshipped '''Baal'''; Israel's repudiation of the god would remain a source of contention between the two states.
+The rise of Aramean kingdoms in Syria and Upper Mesopotamia began after 1000 <small>B.C.</small>, as various Aramean groups established city-states and regional powers across the region. East of the Euphrates, notable Aramean polities included Beth-Eden, with Til Barsip as its capital; the city-state of Gozan; and Hadippe, whose capital was Suru. These eastern Aramean lands flourished for a time but came under increasing pressure from the Assyrian Empire, which forced them to pay tribute in the early 9th century <small>B.C.</small>. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III campaigned against the region, devastating Til Barsip in 857 <small>B.C.</small> and reducing the Arameans' control over their eastern holdings.
-However, the growing presence of Assyria would prevent a resolution being reached between the two states.  In 805 <small>B.C.</small>, the Assyrians would besiege Damascus during the reign of Ben-Hadad III.  Further in-fighting between the Aramean states, such as the failed coalition led by Damascus against Zakir of Hamath, would weaken the divided states of Syria.  King Rezin of Damascus would be executed by Tiglath-pileser III in 732 <small>B.C.</small>.  Thereafter, Damascus would lose all importance and remain subject to the Kings of Assyria until 625, and thereafter Babylonia.
+West of the Euphrates, Aramean kingdoms developed in the Levant, including Gargum (with Marash as its capital), Samal, Hattin, Hamath, Zobah, and most notably, Aram-Damascus. Among these, Aram-Damascus rose to become the most powerful Aramean kingdom, engaging in frequent conflicts with Israel, Assyria, and other regional powers. The smaller Aramean states to the north and west persisted as vassal states for centuries, though their independence remained fragile. Their fate was ultimately sealed between 720 and 719 <small>B.C.</small>, when Sargon II of Assyria launched a final campaign, bringing them under direct Assyrian rule and ending their sovereignty.
 == Urartu ==

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 == Phoenicia ==
-Following the collapse of societies surrounding the eastern Mediterranean, there arose various great cities of '''Phoenicia''', a disunited collective culture arising from traders, expert seafarers and colonist explorers.  An expansive sea trade network had existed for more than a millennium, becoming the dominant commercial power in antiquity.  Tyre, Sidon, Beirut and Byblos flourished as independent kingdoms for centuries after the collapse of Egyptian power along the Levant coast after 1225 <small>B.C.</small>  Ugarit was destroyed in 1200 from the sea; Beirut fell to the Assyrians (c.1100 <small>B.C.</small>).
+Following the collapse of societies across the eastern Mediterranean, the Phoenician cities emerged as centers of trade, seafaring, and colonization. Rather than forming a unified state, Phoenicia consisted of a loose network of powerful city-states, each ruled independently yet bound together by common commercial interests. For over a millennium, the Phoenicians controlled one of the most expansive maritime trade networks in antiquity, dominating commerce across the Mediterranean world. The great cities of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos flourished, continuing to thrive even after the decline of Egyptian influence along the Levantine coast following 1225 <small>B.C.</small>. However, not all Phoenician settlements survived; Ugarit was destroyed in 1200 <small>B.C.</small> by raiders from the sea, and Beirut fell to the Assyrians around 1100 <small>B.C.</small>.
-King Abibaal of Tyre (969-936) established the kingdom, which became a hegemony over other Phoenician trade cities in the Mediterranean.  His son, '''Hiram I''' (936-918 <small>B.C.</small>), son of Abibaal, established the '''Hegemony of Tyre''', subjugating the colony of Utica after it had rebelled.  King Hiram of Tyre employed his craftsmen to provide King Solomon with a fleet for his operations on the Red Sea.  Hiram was succeeded by his son Beleazarus (920-918) and his grandson Abstartus (918-909).
+King Abibaal of Tyre (969-936 <small>B.C.</small>) established the Kingdom of Tyre, transforming it into the dominant Phoenician power. His son, Hiram I (936-918 <small>B.C.</small>), consolidated Tyre's supremacy, founding what became known as the Hegemony of Tyre. His rule saw the subjugation of Utica, a Phoenician colony that had attempted to rebel. Renowned for his skilled craftsmen and naval expertise, King Hiram famously allied with King Solomon of Israel, providing Phoenician shipbuilders and sailors to construct a fleet for Red Sea trade expeditions. After his reign, he was succeeded by Beleazarus (920-918 <small>B.C.</small>), followed by his grandson Abstartus (918-909 <small>B.C.</small>).
-Abstartus was assassinated by the first of four brothers, the sons of Abstartus' nurse, who reigned in succession between 909-887 <small>B.C.</small>.  These were Astartus, Deleastartus, Astarymus and Phelles.  These were followed by '''Ittobaal''' of Tyre (887-856 <small>B.C.</small>), formerly a priest of '''Baal,''' established a new dynasty that would rule the Phoenician Kingdom independently for a century.  Lands and privileges were lost to the Assyrians, as Tyre was forced to pay heavy tributes to survive.
+The reign of Abstartus ended abruptly when he was assassinated by the first of four brothers, sons of his nurse, who seized power and ruled in succession from 909-887 <small>B.C.</small>. These rulers—Astartus, Deleastartus, Astarymus, and Phelles—destabilized the kingdom, leading to a period of internal conflict. Stability was restored under Ittobaal of Tyre (887-856 <small>B.C.</small>), a former priest of Baal, who established a new royal dynasty that ruled Phoenicia for over a century. However, Tyre's influence began to wane, and under pressure from the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire, the city was forced to pay heavy tributes to maintain its independence. In an effort to strengthen alliances against the Assyrians, Ittobaal’s daughter, Jezebel, married King Ahab of Israel, bringing Baal worship to the Hebrew kingdom. Meanwhile, her brother Balbazer (846-841 <small>B.C.</small>) continued Tyre’s struggle, submitting to Assyrian overlordship. He was followed by Mattan I (840-832 <small>B.C.</small>), who similarly governed under Assyrian dominance.
-The last king of Tyre, Pygmalion (820-774 <small>B.C.</small>), shifted the focus of Phoenician trading from Mesopotamia and the Levant towards Cyprus, Greece and Sardinia, as these regions gained stability.  Pygmalion's sister, Dido, fled Tyre in 925 to escape her brother's dominance, eventually founding the city of '''Carthage''' in 814 <small>B.C.</small>.  Thereafter, Tyre fell into a period of disorder, where the city (and other Phoenician trade cities) lacked a king, until Ittobaal II (750-739).
+The last significant ruler of Tyre, Pygmalion (820-774 <small>B.C.</small>), shifted Phoenician trade networks away from the politically unstable Levant and Mesopotamia, redirecting commerce toward Cyprus, Greece, and Sardinia. His reign marked a turning point in Phoenician expansion, as overseas colonies became increasingly self-sufficient. His sister, Dido, fled Tyre in 925 <small>B.C.</small> to escape his autocratic rule, eventually founding the powerful city of Carthage in 814 <small>B.C.</small>, which would later eclipse Tyre in wealth and influence. Following Pygmalion’s reign, Tyre and other Phoenician cities fell into a period of disunity and political disorder, with no clear rulers until Ittobaal II (750-739 <small>B.C.</small>), who briefly reestablished stability.
-==== Assyrian Dominance ====
+=== Assyrian Dominance ===
-From the time of Pygmalion, the Assyrians would receive tribute from Phoenician cities without subjecting them.  These cities paid an especially heavy levy to Tiglath Pileser after 738 <small>B.C.</small>.  Hiram II (739-730 <small>B.C.</small>) and Mattan II (730-729 <small>B.C.</small>) would see the subjugation of the hinterland.  During that period, Elulaios of Tyre (729-694 <small>B.C.</small>) would reconquer Cyprus after it had been taken from Sargon II; Elulaios would flee to Cyprus during the campaigns of Sennacherib.  Phoenicia and Cyprus would then be subjected by Essarhaddon and remain under Assyrian rulership.  Essarhaddon destroyed Sidon in 675 <small>B.C.</small>.  Tyre survived, though only in name, as it paid tribute to Ashurbanipal.
+From the time of Pygmalion, the Assyrian Empire extracted tribute from Phoenician cities without fully subjecting them. This arrangement intensified after 738 <small>B.C.</small>, when the cities were forced to pay an especially heavy levy to Tiglath-Pileser III. Though they retained nominal autonomy, Hiram II (739-730 <small>B.C.</small>) and Mattan II (730-729 <small>B.C.</small>) presided over a period of increasing Assyrian influence, as the hinterland of Phoenicia was gradually brought under direct Assyrian control.
-Following the collapse of Assyria in 612 <small>B.C.</small>, the cities of Phoenicia would experience a brief period of independence.
+During this time, Elulaios of Tyre (729-694 <small>B.C.</small>) sought to restore Phoenician dominance, successfully reconquering Cyprus after it had been seized by Sargon II. However, his efforts were ultimately in vain. When Sennacherib launched his military campaigns against the region, Elulaios was forced to flee to Cyprus, abandoning the mainland to Assyrian rule. From that point forward, Phoenicia and Cyprus fell completely under Assyrian dominion, with their independence effectively lost. Esarhaddon further cemented this control by destroying Sidon in 675 <small>B.C.</small>, ending its prominence as a Phoenician power. Tyre, though spared from destruction, survived only in name, forced to pay heavy tribute to Ashurbanipal.
 == Israel & Judah ==