Iron Age - Revision history

Bennettj: /* Assyria */

2026-08-03T15:52:31Z

Assyria

Bennettj: /* Damascus */

2026-08-03T15:52:07Z

Damascus

Bennettj: /* Phoenicia */

2026-08-03T15:31:56Z

Phoenicia

Tao alexis at 02:45, 16 June 2026

2026-06-16T02:45:57Z

Bennettj: /* Aristocracy & Colonisation */

2026-06-10T19:15:43Z

Aristocracy & Colonisation

Bennettj: /* Aristocracy & Colonisation */

2026-06-02T19:54:16Z

Aristocracy & Colonisation

Bennettj: /* The Early Peloponnese */

2026-05-22T17:59:00Z

The Early Peloponnese

Tao alexis: /* China */

2026-04-14T23:18:20Z

China

Tao alexis: /* Scythia & Medea */

2026-04-14T23:17:59Z

Scythia & Medea

Tao alexis at 19:25, 2 March 2025

2025-03-02T19:25:02Z

Show changes

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 == Assyria ==
-Assyria was situated in the highlands north of Babylon, along the upper Tigris River and the waters of the Great and Little Zab Rivers. Its culture was deeply indebted to Babylonian, Hittite and Hurrian traditions, incorporating elements from all three civilizations into its own distinct identity. While Assyrian literature was largely composed of new editions of ancient Babylonian texts, its royal annals, modelled after Hittite historical records, remain some of the most valuable historical sources from the period.
+Assyria was situated in the highlands north of [[Babylon]], along the upper Tigris River and the waters of the Great and Little Zab Rivers. Its culture was deeply indebted to Babylonian, Hittite and Hurrian traditions, incorporating elements from all three civilizations into its own distinct identity. While Assyrian literature was largely composed of new editions of ancient Babylonian texts, its royal annals, modelled after Hittite historical records, remain some of the most valuable historical sources from the period.
 In the arts, Assyria excelled in sculpture, particularly in bas-reliefs, which depicted religious rituals, royal hunts and military campaigns with remarkable realism. Assyrian architecture, heavily influenced by Hittite styles, was also notable for its grandeur, featuring massive palaces, ziggurats and fortress-like citadels. However, the greatest contributions of Assyria lay in its advancements in military technology and imperial administration, both of which would set the standard for later empires.

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 However, neither kingdom would achieve decisive dominance, as the increasing intervention of the Assyrian Empire overshadowed their disputes. In 805 <small>B.C.</small>, the Assyrians besieged Damascus during the reign of Ben-Hadad III, further weakening the city's position. Internal divisions among the Aramean states also hastened its decline; an attempted coalition led by Damascus against Zakir of Hamath failed, further fracturing Aramean resistance. The final blow came in 732 <small>B.C.</small>, when King Rezin of Damascus was captured and executed by Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria.
-After its conquest, Damascus lost all political importance, becoming a vassal of the Assyrian Empire until 625 <small>B.C.</small>, after which it fell under the control of Babylonia, marking the end of its independence.
+After its conquest, Damascus lost all political importance, becoming a vassal of the Assyrian Empire until 625 <small>B.C.</small>, after which it fell under the control of [[Babylonia]], marking the end of its independence.
 == Urartu ==

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 King Abibaal of Tyre (969-936 <small>B.C.</small>) established the Kingdom of Tyre, transforming it into the dominant Phoenician power. His son, Hiram I (936-918 <small>B.C.</small>), consolidated Tyre's supremacy, founding what became known as the Hegemony of Tyre. His rule saw the subjugation of Utica, a Phoenician colony that had attempted to rebel. Renowned for his skilled craftsmen and naval expertise, King Hiram famously allied with King Solomon of Israel, providing Phoenician shipbuilders and sailors to construct a fleet for Red Sea trade expeditions. After his reign, he was succeeded by Beleazarus (920-918 <small>B.C.</small>), followed by his grandson Abstartus (918-909 <small>B.C.</small>).
-The reign of Abstartus ended abruptly when he was assassinated by the first of four brothers, sons of his nurse, who seized power and ruled in succession from 909-887 <small>B.C.</small>. These rulers — Astartus, Deleastartus, Astarymus and Phelles — destabilised the kingdom, leading to a period of internal conflict. Stability was restored under Ittobaal of Tyre (887-856 <small>B.C.</small>), a former priest of Baal, who established a new royal dynasty that ruled Phoenicia for over a century. However, Tyre's influence began to wane, and under pressure from the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire, the city was forced to pay heavy tributes to maintain its independence. In an effort to strengthen alliances against the Assyrians, Ittobaal's daughter, Jezebel, married King Ahab of Israel, bringing Baal worship to the Hebrew kingdom. Meanwhile, her brother Balbazer (846-841 <small>B.C.</small>) continued Tyre's struggle, submitting to Assyrian overlordship. He was followed by Mattan I (840-832 <small>B.C.</small>), who similarly governed under Assyrian dominance.
+The reign of Abstartus ended abruptly when he was assassinated by the first of four brothers, sons of his nurse, who seized power and ruled in succession from 909-887 <small>B.C.</small>. These rulers — Astartus, Deleastartus, Astarymus and Phelles — destabilised the kingdom, leading to a period of internal conflict. Stability was restored under Ittobaal of Tyre (887-856 <small>B.C.</small>), a former priest of [[Baalzebub (demi-god)|Baal]], who established a new royal dynasty that ruled Phoenicia for over a century. However, Tyre's influence began to wane, and under pressure from the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire, the city was forced to pay heavy tributes to maintain its independence. In an effort to strengthen alliances against the Assyrians, Ittobaal's daughter, Jezebel, married King Ahab of Israel, bringing Baal worship to the Hebrew kingdom. Meanwhile, her brother Balbazer (846-841 <small>B.C.</small>) continued Tyre's struggle, submitting to Assyrian overlordship. He was followed by Mattan I (840-832 <small>B.C.</small>), who similarly governed under Assyrian dominance.
 The last significant ruler of Tyre, Pygmalion (820-774 <small>B.C.</small>), shifted Phoenician trade networks away from the politically unstable Levant and Mesopotamia, redirecting commerce toward Cyprus, Greece and Sardinia. His reign marked a turning point in Phoenician expansion, as overseas colonies became increasingly self-sufficient. His sister, Dido, fled Tyre in 925 <small>B.C.</small> to escape his autocratic rule, eventually founding the powerful city of Carthage in 814 <small>B.C.</small>, which would later eclipse Tyre in wealth and influence. Following Pygmalion's reign, Tyre and other Phoenician cities fell into a period of disunity and political disorder, with no clear rulers until Ittobaal II (750-739 <small>B.C.</small>), who briefly reestablished stability.

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-[[File:Iron Age.jpg|right|525px|thumb]]'''The Iron Age''' describes the time period between 1200 and 600 <small>B.C.</small>, where the widespread adoption of iron weapons and tools replaced the use of bronze.  This transition was disrupted by the collapse of numerous civilisations during the first half of this period, often referred to as the Ancient Dark Age. As Mediterranean societies regained stability between 850 and 650 B.C., a transformed geopolitical landscape emerged, with power shifting westward from the Fertile Crescent to the Aegean.
+[[File:Iron Age.jpg|right|525px|thumb]]'''The Iron Age''' describes the time period between 1200 and 600 <small>B.C.</small>, where the widespread adoption of iron weapons and tools replaced the use of bronze.  This transition was disrupted by the collapse of numerous civilisations during the first half of this period, often referred to as the Ancient Dark Age. As Mediterranean societies regained stability between 850 and 650 B.C., a transformed geopolitical landscape emerged, with power shifting westward from the Fertile Crescent to the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]].
 __TOC__
 == Greece ==

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 === Aristocracy & Colonisation ===
-By 900 <small>B.C.</small>, monarchies across Greece had largely given way to aristocracies, as hereditary kings lost power or were reduced to ceremonial figures, with Sparta being the principal exception. The aristocrats, wielding iron weapons and amassing land, solidified their control at the expense of the lower farming classes, leading to renewed economic hardship and food shortages. After 800 <small>B.C.</small>, the pressure of overpopulation and social unrest prompted a wave of colonisation, initially encouraged by the ruling elites as a means of diffusing internal discontent. Greek city-states established settlements across the Mediterranean, spreading Hellenic culture far beyond the mainland. Major colonies took root along the Anatolian coast, in Libya, and along the Nile at Naucratis (founded in 640 <small>B.C.</small>). Greek traders and settlers also reached the coasts of Gaul and Iberia, as well as the northern shores of the Black Sea. These outposts reestablished Greece as a central force in Mediterranean trade, linking the region's economies once more, while at home a vibrant culture emerged, inspired by myths and legends transmitted through oral tradition by bards like Homer (c.750-800 <small>B.C.</small>).
+By 900 <small>B.C.</small>, monarchies across Greece had largely given way to [[Aristocracy|aristocracies]], as hereditary kings lost power or were reduced to ceremonial figures, with Sparta being the principal exception. The aristocrats, wielding iron weapons and amassing land, solidified their control at the expense of the lower farming classes, leading to renewed economic hardship and food shortages. After 800 <small>B.C.</small>, the pressure of overpopulation and social unrest prompted a wave of colonisation, initially encouraged by the ruling elites as a means of diffusing internal discontent. Greek city-states established settlements across the Mediterranean, spreading Hellenic culture far beyond the mainland. Major colonies took root along the Anatolian coast, in Libya, and along the Nile at Naucratis (founded in 640 <small>B.C.</small>). Greek traders and settlers also reached the coasts of Gaul and Iberia, as well as the northern shores of the Black Sea. These outposts reestablished Greece as a central force in Mediterranean trade, linking the region's economies once more, while at home a vibrant culture emerged, inspired by myths and legends transmitted through oral tradition by bards like Homer (c.750-800 <small>B.C.</small>).
 The expansion of trade brought an influx of luxury goods, including oils, wine, ivories, gold and silver, which in turn spurred advancements in metallurgy, pottery and other crafts. This technological and artistic growth enabled the Greeks to rival the Phoenicians, whose own trade networks were dominant in the Mediterranean. As commerce flourished, a more educated and cultivated population emerged, driven by an interest in philosophy, literature and the arts. The increased demand for labour also led to the widespread use of slaves, while the adoption of coinage, first introduced from Lydia, transformed economic practices. Individual city-states soon began minting their own coins, spurring competition and economic expansion.

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 The expansion of trade brought an influx of luxury goods, including oils, wine, ivories, gold and silver, which in turn spurred advancements in metallurgy, pottery and other crafts. This technological and artistic growth enabled the Greeks to rival the Phoenicians, whose own trade networks were dominant in the Mediterranean. As commerce flourished, a more educated and cultivated population emerged, driven by an interest in philosophy, literature and the arts. The increased demand for labour also led to the widespread use of slaves, while the adoption of coinage, first introduced from Lydia, transformed economic practices. Individual city-states soon began minting their own coins, spurring competition and economic expansion.
-In the cultural sphere, lyric poetry gained prominence, reflecting a growing appreciation for personal expression and artistic refinement. Greek art, once dominated by geometric patterns, shifted towards an oriental, or animal style, influenced by Eastern motifs and techniques. The early foundations of philosophy emerged with the Milesian School, where thinkers like Thales, Anaximenes and Anaximander pioneered new ideas in mathematics and logic, laying the groundwork for rational inquiry that would define Greek intellectual tradition in the centuries to come.
+In the cultural sphere, lyric poetry gained prominence, reflecting a growing appreciation for personal expression and artistic refinement. Greek art, once dominated by geometric patterns, shifted towards an oriental, or [[Animal|animal]] style, influenced by Eastern motifs and techniques. The early foundations of philosophy emerged with the Milesian School, where thinkers like Thales, Anaximenes and Anaximander pioneered new ideas in mathematics and logic, laying the groundwork for rational inquiry that would define Greek intellectual tradition in the centuries to come.
 === The Early Peloponnese ===

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 By 800 <small>B.C.</small>, Sparta had firmly established its dominance over the central Peloponnesian peninsula and extended its reach by colonising the fertile lands of Messenia. In its expansion, Sparta waged war against Tegea, the leading city of the Arcadians, a people still fragmented and largely backward compared to the more developed Greek city-states. The Arcadians maintained a religious unity centered around the ancient rites conducted on Mt. Lycaeum, but this did little to unify them politically. Meanwhile, Corinth had emerged as a significant commercial hub, exerting influence over its smaller neighbor Megara until 720 <small>B.C.</small>. Argos, despite claiming hegemony over Greece as the successor of Mycenae, remained a relatively weak power, unable to assert control over its rivals.
-In the First Messenian War (736-716 <small>B.C.</small>), Sparta, under the leadership of King Theopompus, launched a campaign to conquer Messenia. Following their victory, the Spartans seised the fertile plains and divided the land among themselves, forcing the native Messenians into servitude as helots, agricultural serfs bound to their Spartan masters. Alongside the Spartiates (full Spartan citizens) and the helots, there existed a third class known as the perioeci, free Laconians who lived in surrounding settlements but lacked full citizenship rights. Despite its growing military dominance, Sparta still maintained a vibrant cultural and intellectual life, particularly excelling in choral poetry, which was esteemed across Greece.
+In the First Messenian War (736-716 <small>B.C.</small>), Sparta, under the leadership of King Theopompus, launched a campaign to conquer Messenia. Following their victory, the Spartans seised the fertile plains and divided the land among themselves, forcing the native Messenians into servitude as helots, [[Agriculture (technology)|agricultural]] serfs bound to their Spartan masters. Alongside the Spartiates (full Spartan citizens) and the helots, there existed a third class known as the perioeci, free Laconians who lived in surrounding settlements but lacked full citizenship rights. Despite its growing military dominance, Sparta still maintained a vibrant cultural and intellectual life, particularly excelling in choral poetry, which was esteemed across Greece.
 [[File:Greek Tyranny.jpg|left|350px|thumb]]

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 During the Eastern Chao era, roughly 770 to 600 BCE, the feudal states began to consolidate their own power. The chief states included Qi and Lu, dividing the Shandong peninsula and the former Chao heartlands; Yan on the north coast near the Yellow Sea; Qin in modern Shanxi; Chu in the middle Yangtze River valley; and the small state of Shun west of Lu. These states maintained semi-independent administrations, levied taxes and conscripted armies, while their rulers still acknowledged the Chao king ceremonially.
 See also,<br>
-[[Classical Period]]
+[[Classical Period]]<br>
 [[History (sage study)]]<br>
 [[World History]]
-[[Category: Incomplete]]
+[[Category: Reviewed]]