Egyptian History - Revision history

Tao alexis at 03:48, 15 April 2026

2026-04-15T03:48:24Z

Tao alexis at 03:47, 15 April 2026

2026-04-15T03:47:15Z

Show changes

Tao alexis: /* The Ptolomies */

2026-04-15T03:39:34Z

The Ptolomies

Tao alexis: /* The Ptolomies */

2025-04-14T20:17:12Z

The Ptolomies

Tao alexis: /* The Ptolomies */

2025-04-14T20:13:40Z

The Ptolomies

Tao alexis: /* Persian Occupation */

2025-04-14T19:43:14Z

Persian Occupation

Tao alexis at 19:42, 14 April 2025

2025-04-14T19:42:19Z

Tao alexis at 19:42, 14 April 2025

2025-04-14T19:42:00Z

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Tao alexis: /* Persia & the Ptolomies */

2025-04-14T19:34:02Z

Persia & the Ptolomies

Tao alexis: /* Decline */

2025-04-14T19:21:07Z

Decline

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	[[World History]]		[[World History]]

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	Cleopatra's initial alliance with Caesar, following his arrival in Egypt during the Roman civil war, allowed her to defeat her brother and co-ruler, Ptolemy XIII, and consolidate her position. Caesar installed her as queen and remained in Egypt for a time, during which their political and personal connection deepened. With Caesar's backing, Cleopatra restored a measure of order and stability to her rule, but Egypt was now irrevocably linked to the fate of Rome. The death of Caesar would trigger a new round of conflict, eventually culminating in the final war of the Roman Republic — and the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty.		Cleopatra's initial alliance with Caesar, following his arrival in Egypt during the Roman civil war, allowed her to defeat her brother and co-ruler, Ptolemy XIII, and consolidate her position. Caesar installed her as queen and remained in Egypt for a time, during which their political and personal connection deepened. With Caesar's backing, Cleopatra restored a measure of order and stability to her rule, but Egypt was now irrevocably linked to the fate of Rome. The death of Caesar would trigger a new round of conflict, eventually culminating in the final war of the Roman Republic — and the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty.
		+
		+	== Roman Occupation ==
		+	30 BCE, after Cleopatra’s death, Egypt became a Roman province, and the city of Alexandria remained the centre of administration and trade. Grain from the Nile Delta continued to feed Rome, and garrisons at Nicopolis and the fortress of Babylon secured the river and its canals. Greek-speaking merchants controlled the city’s commerce, Jews maintained their quarter, and native Egyptians worked the land along traditional lines. Temples continued ritual life, particularly at Dendera and Philae, even as the imperial cult grew more visible.
		+
		+	In 38 CE, riots broke out in Alexandria between Greeks and Jews, prompted by local tensions over civic privileges and representation. The prefect brought in reinforcements to restore order, and by 41 CE, after further disturbances, the city returned to its usual rhythm of commerce, worship, and Nile-dependent agriculture. During the Jewish Revolt of 66 CE, Alexandria again faced unrest, but the city’s granaries and the surrounding rural economy remained intact, and life elsewhere in Upper and Middle Egypt continued without interruption.
		+
		+	Between 66E and the late third century, the province was remarkably stable. Villages and towns carried on with the rhythms of the Nile inundations, harvests, and temple festivals. Alexandria maintained its central role in Mediterranean trade, importing wine, olive oil, and luxury goods, while exporting grain, papyrus, and textiles. Monastic communities began to appear in the Thebaid, developing alongside traditional temple networks without displacing them. Pagan worship persisted in temples throughout the Nile Valley, often alongside emerging Christian communities, whose presence was still marginal in urban centres.
		+
		+	Around 296, Diocletian reorganised Egypt into smaller provinces, strengthened garrisons along the Nile and desert routes, and adjusted taxation to secure estates and grain stores. Urban centres were fortified, roads repaired, and granaries expanded. Temples remained active, and the Nile continued to dictate the rhythm of daily life. These structures and practices endured until the Byzantine reforms just before Justinian, preserving Egypt’s distinctive urban, agricultural, and religious character under Roman rule.
		+
		+	== Byzantine Empire ==
		+	After Diocletian’s reforms, Egypt became a core province of the Byzantine empire. Alexandria remained the capital and the centre of Mediterranean trade, its harbours crowded with grain ships for Constantinople. Garrisons were maintained at Nicopolis, Babylon, and along desert approaches to protect the Nile and trade routes. Rural life continued on the rhythms of the Nile, with villages and estates following traditional cycles of planting, harvest, and temple festivals.
		+
		+	In 412, Cyril became bishop of Alexandria, and tensions between Christians, Jews, and the remaining pagans erupted in riots, the most famous in 415 with the murder of Hypatia. Despite unrest, the grain supply remained secure, and life in Upper and Middle Egypt continued largely unchanged. Monastic communities grew in the Thebaid and desert wadis, forming spiritual and economic centres alongside existing villages.
		+
		+	Under Justinian in 538–539, fortifications were strengthened, and Monophysite communities gained influence even as the empire maintained Chalcedonian oversight. By the early seventh century, Alexandria still exported grain, flax, and textiles across the Mediterranean, while desert forts guarded trade routes. In 639, Arab forces under Amr ibn al-As invaded Egypt, and Alexandria fell in 641, ending Byzantine rule. Throughout the Byzantine period, Egypt retained its agricultural wealth, urban life, and religious diversity, even as imperial authority gradually weakened.
		+
		+	== Rise of the Umayyads ==
		+	Egypt was formally incorporated into the Rashidun Caliphate, with Fustat established as the administrative capital near the Nile. Governors appointed by the caliphs oversaw taxation, the collection of grain, and security along the river and desert routes. The local population—Copts, Greeks, and Jews—largely continued traditional village and agricultural life under the new rulers, paying land taxes and the jizya, while retaining their own religious and communal structures. Arab garrisons were stationed at key points along the Nile, maintaining control over trade and communication.
		+
		+	During the later Rashidun and early Umayyad period, governors faced intermittent revolts, often sparked by taxation disputes or resistance from local elites, but these were contained without dismantling the provincial structure. Arab settlers were encouraged along the Nile, consolidating military and administrative control, while the Arabisation of the bureaucracy gradually expanded. The Nile remained the economic lifeline, with grain shipments continuing to feed the broader Caliphate.
		+
		+	By the end of the Umayyad period in 750, Egypt had become a stable, integrated province within the Islamic world, governed from Fustat, its agricultural and urban structures largely preserved. The foundations for later Fatimid and Abbasid rule were laid, including a centralised administration, fortified cities, and the integration of Egypt into trans-Mediterranean and Red Sea trade networks.
		+
		+	== The Abbasids ==
		+	After the fall of the Umayyads in 750, Egypt became a province of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasids appointed governors from Baghdad to oversee taxation, land management, and security, often relying on Arab garrisons stationed along the Nile and desert routes. Fustat remained the administrative capital, where officials collected the kharaj and monitored grain shipments, which continued to feed both local populations and the broader Caliphate. The local Coptic, Greek, and Jewish communities retained their villages, monasteries, and religious practices, while adapting to Abbasid fiscal and legal structures.
		+
		+	In the ninth century, Egypt experienced periods of unrest, as governors contended with local revolts and power struggles among Arab settlers and military factions. Despite this, the Abbasids maintained effective control through a combination of garrison oversight and centralised bureaucracy. The Nile valley’s agriculture continued to underpin the economy, with estates producing grain, flax, and cotton for local use and export. Alexandria and other urban centres remained active in Mediterranean trade, while desert routes connected Egypt to the Red Sea and the wider Islamic world. By the late tenth century, Abbasid authority had weakened.
		+
		+	Local dynasties, starting with the Tulunids, exercised increasing authority. The Tulunids ruled Egypt from 868 to 905, establishing the first independent dynasty since the Arab conquest. Founded by Ahmad ibn Tulun, they maintained nominal allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate while governing autonomously from Fustat. Ibn Tulun expanded irrigation, strengthened the army, and constructed mosques, including his famous mosque in Cairo. The dynasty relied on a mix of Arab, Turkish, and local troops and managed Egypt’s grain and trade effectively. The Ikhshidids followed from 935 to 969, founded by Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid. They continued Tulunid policies, preserved administrative structures, and collected taxes efficiently. Despite Abbasid nominal authority, Egypt remained effectively independent until the Fatimid conquest.
		+
		+	== The Fatimids ==
		+	The Fatimids ruled Egypt from 969 to 1171, establishing Cairo as their new capital near Fustat and constructing the citadel as the centre of administration and military control. The dynasty, promoting Isma’ili Shiism, created a centralised bureaucracy to manage taxation, land tenure, and trade, while Arab and Berber garrisons protected the Nile, desert routes, and Red Sea ports. The Nile’s inundation continued to dictate agricultural cycles, with estates producing grain, flax, and cotton for local consumption and export.
		+
		+	Religious communities — Copts, Jews, and Sunni Muslims — remained active, though the Fatimids promoted their own sect through mosques, schools, and endowments. Cairo developed rapidly as a political, religious, and commercial hub, while Fustat retained its role as a centre of artisanship and local trade. Fatimid rule encouraged Mediterranean and Red Sea commerce, connecting Egypt with North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and India.
		+
		+	The dynasty faced periodic revolts, including uprisings by local elites and religious communities, but the central authority generally maintained control. Fatimid administrative, military, and economic structures persisted throughout their rule, laying the foundations for later Ayyubid governance. In 1171, Saladin abolished the Fatimid caliphate, incorporating Egypt into the Sunni Ayyubid state, though much of the Fatimids' urban, agricultural and trade infrastructure continued under the new rulers.
		+
		+	== Saladin and the Crusades ==
		+	Saladin established Sunni Ayyubid rule over Egypt while retaining Cairo as the administrative and military centre. He reorganised the army, strengthened fortifications along the Nile and desert approaches, and maintained the agricultural and trade infrastructure inherited from the Fatimids. Cairo became both a political and religious hub under Sunni authority. After his death in 1193, his Ayyubid realm fragmented, with Egypt secured by his brother al-Adil by 1200. Under his successors, Egypt faced the Fifth Crusade (1218–1221), when Crusader forces captured Damietta but failed to advance on Cairo and were forced to surrender. Stability returned, though power struggles continued within the Ayyubid family. In 1249, the Seventh Crusade led by Louis IX of France again captured Damietta. The Ayyubid sultan died during the campaign, and military command fell to slave-soldiers. In 1250, these Mamluks defeated the Crusaders and took control of Egypt.
		+
		+	== The Mamluks ==
		+	With the establishment of a military sultanate in Egypt, the Mamluks ruled from Cairo through a hierarchy of slave-soldiers who had risen through the ranks. In 1260, they defeated the Mongols at Ayn Jalut in Syria, halting further advance into the region and securing Egypt from eastern invasion. Under sultans like Baybars, they consolidated power, strengthened fortifications, and drove the remaining Crusader states from the Levant, culminating in the fall of Acre in 1291.
		+
		+	Through the fourteenth century, the Mamluks maintained control over Egypt and Syria, managing trade routes between the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Cairo flourished as a centre of commerce, religion, and scholarship, while the Nile continued to sustain agriculture. The sultanate relied on continual importation of slave soldiers, primarily from the Caucasus and Central Asia, to replenish its ruling class. Internal rivalries among these elites led to frequent changes in leadership, though the overall system endured.
		+
		+	In the fifteenth century, external pressures increased. The rise of Portuguese sea routes around Africa began to weaken Red Sea trade, reducing Egypt’s economic advantage. At the same time, conflicts with the expanding Ottoman state intensified along the northern frontiers. Despite these pressures, the Mamluks maintained their authority until 1517, when Ottoman forces under Selim I defeated them in a series of battles and incorporated Egypt into the Ottoman Empire, ending Mamluk sovereignty.
		+
		+	== The Ottomans ==
		+	After the Ottoman conquest in 1517 under Selim I, Egypt became a province governed from Cairo by a pasha appointed from Istanbul, while former Mamluk elites were retained as local beys, continuing to manage land, taxation, and rural administration. The Nile remained central to agriculture, with grain, rice, and flax cultivated and shipped through Alexandria and Rosetta, supplying both the empire and Mediterranean markets.
		+
		+	Under Suleiman in the early sixteenth century, administration was regularised, fortifications were maintained, and the Red Sea route was strengthened to counter Portuguese interference in Indian Ocean trade. Egypt served as a key link between Ottoman territories and the Hejaz, with caravans and fleets supporting pilgrimage routes to Mecca. Cairo remained a major urban centre, hosting merchants, scholars, and craftsmen, while also serving as a military base for expeditions into Arabia and along the African coast.
		+
		+	Through the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, authority in Egypt became increasingly divided. Ottoman governors rotated frequently, while Mamluk beys regained influence, competing for control of revenues and local power. Despite this, the administrative structure endured, and agricultural production along the Nile continued with little interruption. Trade persisted through both Mediterranean and Red Sea channels, though reduced by shifting global routes.
		+
		+	By 1650, Egypt remained an Ottoman province in name, but in practice was governed through a balance between imperial officials and entrenched Mamluk households, maintaining stability without direct, continuous control from Istanbul.

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	[[Ptolemaic Egypt]]<br>		[[Ptolemaic Egypt]]<br>
	[[World History]]		[[World History]]
		+
		+	[[Category: History]][[Category: Reviewed]]

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 Following the collapse of native rule, Egypt entered a long era of foreign domination marked by successive occupations, beginning with eastern empires and later by Greek and Roman powers. Though still a center of culture, religion and commerce, Egypt's sovereignty was lost and its rulers increasingly served distant interests rather than native ones. This unfortunate chapter is one of adaptation and endurance, as old traditions were preserved, reshaped or absorbed within larger imperial systems.
-== Persian Occupation ==
+=== Persian Occupation ===
 The Persian occupation of Egypt began with the conquest by the Achaemenid Empire, marking a decisive shift from native to foreign rule. Egypt was incorporated as a satrapy, or province, under the wider Persian administrative system. The satrap governed from Memphis, supported by Persian military forces, and was responsible for collecting tribute, maintaining order and ensuring loyalty to the Great King. While Egyptian religion and internal administration were largely respected, the Persians imposed a distant and extractive rule, focusing on Egypt's wealth and resources to support their wider imperial ambitions.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 [[File:Early Egypt.jpg|right|525px|thumb|Ancient Egypt at its Height]]
 '''Egyptian History''' centers on the Nile Valley, which remained uninhabited by humans until after the last Ice Age. As the once-verdant Sahara plateau underwent desertification, both people and animals were forced to migrate — some toward the Mediterranean, others eastward to the Nile. During the [[Palaeolithic Period|Palaeolithic]], human communities occupied the cliffs overlooking the valley. In the [[Neolithic Period|Neolithic]], early agriculturalists moved down to the valley floor, where they cultivated crops in the fertile soil left by the Nile's seasonal floods. This annual inundation enriched the land with nutrient-rich silt, making sustained agriculture possible and shaping the rhythms of Egyptian life and culture.
 __TOC__
 By this time, as many as forty agricultural communities had formed along the Nile north of the First Cataract, strung like beads along the river’s fertile edge. By around 5000 BC, these settlements had coalesced into two distinct kingdoms: one in the delta region, known as Lower Egypt, and the other in the Nile Valley, or Upper Egypt. This period marked the emergence of key cultural, social and technological patterns that would come to define Ancient Egyptian civilisation. After centuries of conflict during the Chalcolithic period, the two kingdoms were unified under '''King Menes''', also known as Narmer, who founded his capital at '''Memphis''' in the northern Nile Valley. This unification marked the beginning of Egypt's '''1st Dynasty'''.
@@ Line 8: / Line 7: @@
 Lasting from 3200 to 2800 <small>BC</small>, the Early Dynastic marks the emergence of the pharaonic civilisation. During this era, the rulers of Egypt established a centralised state, consolidating the authority of the pharaoh while building a bureaucratic framework to oversee the administration of the realm and its regional officials. '''Hieroglyphic''' writing developed rapidly, and the pharaohs began constructing elaborate royal tombs as expressions of their divine status. Agriculture remained the foundation of the economy, supporting the growth of trade and craftsmanship.
 Religion was central to society. The pharaoh was regarded as a divine intermediary, receiving messages directly from the [[Gods (sage study)|Gods]] — a belief mirrored in contemporary [[Mesopotamian History|Mesopotamia]]. Temples multiplied, and religious practice evolved in response to a [[Polytheism (technology)|polytheistic]] awakening. Yet, this divine order clashed with the emerging ambitions of mortals, resulting in unrest that ultimately laid the groundwork for the '''Old Kingdom'''.

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	== Persia & the Ptolomies ==		== Persia & the Ptolomies ==
		+	Following the collapse of native rule, Egypt entered a long era of foreign domination marked by successive occupations, beginning with eastern empires and later by Greek and Roman powers. Though still a center of culture, religion, and commerce, Egypt's sovereignty was lost, and its rulers increasingly served distant interests rather than native ones. This unfortunate chapter is one of adaptation and endurance, as old traditions were preserved, reshaped or absorbed within larger imperial systems.
		+
		+	== Persian Occupation ==
		+	The Persian occupation of Egypt began with the conquest by the Achaemenid Empire, marking a decisive shift from native to foreign rule. Egypt was incorporated as a satrapy, or province, under the wider Persian administrative system. The satrap governed from Memphis, supported by Persian military forces, and was responsible for collecting tribute, maintaining order, and ensuring loyalty to the Great King. While Egyptian religion and internal administration were largely respected, the Persians imposed a distant and extractive rule, focusing on Egypt’s wealth and resources to support their wider imperial ambitions.
		+
		+	Culturally, the Persians made limited efforts to integrate. Unlike the Libyans or Nubians before them, they did not adopt Egyptian religious titles or embed themselves in the priestly hierarchy. This created a sense of separation between rulers and subjects, and despite intermittent temple patronage, Persian kings were generally seen as foreign overlords rather than divine pharaohs. Resentment simmered, and Egypt became a restive province, prone to revolt. Several uprisings were mounted by native claimants to the throne, most notably during the 28th through 30th Dynasties, which temporarily expelled the Persians and restored native rule.
		+
		+	These resurgences were short-lived. Persian armies returned, reconquering the Delta and reasserting control. However, by the late fourth century <small>BC</small>, the Achaemenid Empire itself was under strain, weakened by internal strife and mounting pressure from rising powers in the Greek world. When Alexander of Macedon launched his campaign against Persia, Egypt offered little resistance. The Persian satrap surrendered without battle, and Alexander entered Egypt in triumph, presenting himself not as a conqueror but as a liberator.
		+
		+	Alexander was quick to adopt the traditional roles of pharaoh. He performed the rituals of kingship at Memphis and was recognized by the priesthood. His visit to the oracle at Siwa Oasis, where he was declared the son of Amun, reinforced his legitimacy in the eyes of the Egyptian elite. Rather than restoring native rule, however, Alexander laid the foundation for a new dynasty—Greek in origin but deeply entwined with Egyptian tradition—ushering in the Hellenistic age and permanently ending Egypt’s status as an independent, native-ruled kingdom.
		+
		+	=== The Ptolomies ===
		+	After securing Egypt with little resistance, Alexander the Great left the region in the hands of one of his most trusted generals, '''Ptolemy son of Lagus'''. When Alexander died in 323 <small>BC</small>, his empire fragmented among his generals, and Ptolemy moved quickly to claim Egypt as his share. He took possession of Alexander’s body and brought it to Memphis, using the symbolic weight of the fallen conqueror to strengthen his own claim. Ptolemy ruled Egypt first as satrap and later declared himself king, founding the '''Ptolemaic Dynasty''', which would govern for nearly three centuries.
		+
		+	The Ptolemies ruled as foreign monarchs in an Egyptian land, but they carefully adopted the imagery, titles, and rituals of the pharaonic tradition to legitimize their power. They maintained the native priesthoods and temples, sponsored Egyptian religious practices, and built or restored monuments throughout the country. At the same time, they brought with them the cultural and administrative practices of the Hellenistic world. The newly founded city of '''Alexandria''', on the Mediterranean coast, became their capital and the intellectual and economic hub of the kingdom. It housed the famous Library of Alexandria, a center of learning and scholarship, and the Museum, a royal research institution that attracted thinkers from across the Greek world.
		+
		+	Under the early Ptolemies, Egypt prospered. The bureaucracy was reorganized to maximise agricultural output and taxation, and the kingdom became wealthy through grain exports and international trade. Military strength and diplomatic marriages allowed the Ptolemies to project influence across the eastern Mediterranean. However, the dynasty was plagued by internal instability—rival claimants to the throne, palace intrigue, assassinations, and repeated civil wars weakened the state over time. As the line of kings continued, successive rulers became more entangled with Roman politics, often relying on Roman support to resolve their internal disputes.
		+
		+	By the first century <small>BC</small>, Egypt had become a client state of Rome in all but name. The last and most famous of the Ptolemaic monarchs was '''Cleopatra VII''', an astute and ambitious ruler who sought to preserve Egypt’s independence by forging personal and political alliances with powerful Roman leaders. Her relationships with '''Julius Caesar''' and later '''Mark Antony''' were part of a broader strategy to maintain her throne and Egypt’s autonomy in a world increasingly dominated by Roman power.
		+
		+	Cleopatra's initial alliance with Caesar, following his arrival in Egypt during the Roman civil war, allowed her to defeat her brother and co-ruler, Ptolemy XIII, and consolidate her position. Caesar installed her as queen and remained in Egypt for a time, during which their political and personal connection deepened. With Caesar’s backing, Cleopatra restored a measure of order and stability to her rule, but Egypt was now irrevocably linked to the fate of Rome. The death of Caesar would trigger a new round of conflict, eventually culminating in the final war of the Roman Republic — and the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty.
		+

	See also,<br>		See also,<br>

← Older revision		Revision as of 19:21, 14 April 2025
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	Nonetheless, the cost of these wars drained Egypt’s resources. Prolonged military mobilization sapped the economy, and administrative corruption deepened. Agriculture declined under the weight of poor harvests and mismanagement. The bureaucratic structure faltered, and the loyalty of regional governors weakened. By the end of the 12th century <small>BC</small>, Egypt’s international influence had evaporated. The empire was lost, and though Egypt remained unified in name, its power had collapsed, ushering in a period of internal fragmentation and vulnerability.		Nonetheless, the cost of these wars drained Egypt’s resources. Prolonged military mobilization sapped the economy, and administrative corruption deepened. Agriculture declined under the weight of poor harvests and mismanagement. The bureaucratic structure faltered, and the loyalty of regional governors weakened. By the end of the 12th century <small>BC</small>, Egypt’s international influence had evaporated. The empire was lost, and though Egypt remained unified in name, its power had collapsed, ushering in a period of internal fragmentation and vulnerability.

		+	== Collapse of Ancient Egypt ==
		+	The final centuries of Ancient Egypt mark a long, uneven collapse of what had once been the most enduring civilisation of the ancient world. The loss of central authority, the fragmentation of power between regional warlords, foreign dynasts, and high priests, and the repeated incursions and occupations by outside powers transformed Egypt from an imperial superpower into a land of contested succession and shifting alliances. Though moments of revival occurred, none could fully restore the might or unity of earlier dynasties. Egypt's decline unfolded not through sudden catastrophe, but through a prolonged erosion of power, influence, and cohesion, as internal instability and external pressures chipped away at its foundations until only the shadow of empire remained.

		+	=== Priest-kings ===
		+	Following the collapse of Dynasty XX and the death of Ramesses XI, the centralized authority of the pharaoh disintegrated. In the vacuum, the high priests of Amon in Thebes emerged as the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt. The priest-king '''Hrihor''' (1080–1074 <small>BC</small>) assumed both secular and religious authority in the south, inaugurating what was nominally the 21st Dynasty. However, his power did not extend across the country. In the north, a rival faction led by '''Smendes''' ruled from '''Tanis''' in the eastern Delta, effectively splitting Egypt into two competing spheres of influence.

		+	This division ushered in the '''Third Intermediate Period''', a time marked by weakened central authority, rival dynasties, and growing foreign influence. Egypt’s imperial holdings in Asia had been lost; its vassals in Canaan and Syria had fallen away, and its armies no longer projected power abroad. The fragmentation of Egypt paralleled a broader regional collapse across the eastern Mediterranean, as empires such as the Hittites and Mycenaeans also fell into ruin.
		+
		+	=== Libyan Control ===
		+	Amid this disarray, Libyan chieftains who had long served as military auxiliaries and settlers in the Delta rose in prominence. In 945 <small>BC</small>, the Libyan warlord '''Sheshonk I''' launched a successful campaign of consolidation, seizing the throne and founding '''Dynasty XXII'''. He established his capital at '''Bubastis''' in the eastern Delta and sought to restore Egypt’s standing. Sheshonk’s rule brought nearly a century of relative stability. He reformed administrative structures, fortified the Delta, and reasserted influence abroad, famously appearing in the Hebrew Bible as "Shishak," the king who invaded Judah and plundered the temple of Jerusalem.
		+
		+	However, Sheshonk’s successors proved less capable. After the reign of '''Osorkon II''' (ruled c. 872–837 <small>BC</small>), internal divisions returned. The powerful temple of Amon in Thebes reasserted its independence, and the kingdom once again fractured into semi-autonomous regions. A rival dynasty, the '''23rd Dynasty''', emerged in Upper Egypt, ruling from '''Leontopolis''' and supported by the local priesthood. The south became increasingly influenced by Nubia, where the religious center at '''Napata''' had adopted and preserved Egyptian customs, language, and religious forms.
		+
		+	=== Nubian Conquest ===
		+	In the midst of Egyptian disunity, the Nubians launched a series of campaigns to assert authority over their former imperial masters. Around 720 <small>BC</small>, the Kushite king '''Kashta''' began a deliberate advance into Upper Egypt, asserting control over Thebes and subjugating local rulers. His son, '''Shabaka''', completed the conquest by 712 <small>BC</small>, defeating all remaining native claimants and formally establishing '''Dynasty XXV''', the so-called Kushite or Nubian Dynasty.
		+
		+	The Kushite pharaohs sought to revitalize the grandeur of Egypt’s past. They invested heavily in temple construction and restoration, reviving monumental projects at '''Memphis''', '''Karnak''', '''Kawa''', and '''Jebel Barkal'''. They adopted the full symbolism and ideology of the New Kingdom pharaohs, aligning themselves with the gods and promoting a revival of traditional Egyptian religion and culture. Yet, the power of Egypt was by now largely symbolic. The kingdom’s real sphere of control was limited, and it faced an existential threat from the rapidly expanding '''Assyrian Empire''' to the northeast.
		+
		+	=== Assyrian Invasions ===
		+	By the early 7th century <small>BC</small>, Assyria had become the preeminent power in the Near East. In 671 <small>BC</small>, the Assyrian king '''Esarhaddon''' launched a devastating campaign into Egypt. He overran the Delta and captured the capital '''Memphis''', forcing the pharaoh '''Taharqa''' to flee south. A second campaign followed under '''Ashurbanipal''', who marched as far as '''Thebes'''. In 664 <small>BC</small>, the great southern capital was sacked—an event remembered as one of the most traumatic in Egypt’s long history. Temples were looted, noble families displaced, and the Kushite court driven permanently into retreat.
		+
		+	'''Tantamani''', Taharqa’s successor, made a final effort to retake Egypt in 663 <small>BC</small>. He assembled an army and launched a counteroffensive but was ultimately defeated. He retreated permanently to '''Nubia''', where the Kushite dynasty continued to rule an independent kingdom, maintaining Egyptian traditions and religious culture at Napata and later Meroë.
		+
		+	=== The Last Dynasty ===
		+	In the aftermath of the Assyrian invasions, the political vacuum in Egypt was filled by a native governor of the Delta, '''Psammetichus I''' (663–609 <small>BC</small>), originally appointed by Ashurbanipal to serve as a client ruler. Through political acumen and military alliances—particularly with Greek mercenaries and naval forces—Psammetichus gradually expelled Assyrian forces and rivals alike. By 652 <small>BC</small>, he had unified Upper and Lower Egypt under his rule, founding '''Dynasty XXVI''', also known as the '''Saitic Dynasty''' after his capital at '''Sais''' in the western Delta.
		+
		+	The reign of Psammetichus and his successors ushered in a final cultural and economic flourishing, known as the '''Saitic Revival'''. This period saw a conscious effort to emulate the artistic and administrative forms of the Old and New Kingdoms. Temples were rebuilt or restored in archaic styles, inscriptions imitated the language of earlier dynasties, and Egypt reasserted itself diplomatically along the Mediterranean. Trade expanded, contact with the Greek world deepened, and the Saitic kings briefly restored a measure of Egypt’s ancient dignity.
		+
		+	Yet the age of empire was truly past. Egypt was now part of a much larger geopolitical theatre, and its independence would not long survive. In 525 <small>BC</small>, less than a century after Psammetichus’s death, Egypt would fall to the Persians under Cambyses II, ending native Egyptian rule and initiating a new chapter of foreign dominion.
		+
		+	== Persia & the Ptolomies ==

	See also,<br>		See also,<br>